abstracts for
5. Regional Collections

This review of the law relating to environmental management in Solomon Islands is part of the Regional Environment Technical Assistance (RETA) Project. The project has been coordinated by the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme and is supported by the Asian Development Bank, the World Conservation Union and the Australian Centre for Environmental law.

The Review is written in the light of recent international deliberations on the global environment, and takes into account the documents arising out of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janiero in 1992. In particular, it attempts to be consistent with the recommendations of Agenda 21, a set of principles and programmes agreed on by governments at UNCED.

The Review begins with an overview of sustainable development and its implementation through environmental law, in the context of the international debate concerning environmental matters.

The various regional and global conventions affecting the country are briefly examined. It is recommended in particular that Solomon Islands sign the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species as soon as possible. It is noted that the World Heritage Convention was recently signed by Solomon Islands, and a recommendation is made to pass legislation implementing the Convention forthwith.

The Review canvasses the constitutional structure of Solomon Islands and in particular takes into account the customary law and practices which are constitutionally entrenched. The vital role of the Ombudsman in environmental matters is also emphasised.

The Review takes into serious account the question of land tenure and the need to consider customary ownership when government wishes to take environmental initiatives.

The Review tentatively suggests a procedure for identifying primary and secondary rights holders in land and protecting their interests, through the introduction of a statutorily-based land Commission.

Subsequent chapters of the Review canvass the following substantive areas:

• environmental planning
• environmental impact assessment water quality and management
• water, land, air and noise pollution environmental health
• conservation of biodiversity
• conservation of cultural heritage offshore and onshore fishing
• agriculture
• forestry
• mining and energy
• tourism

Each of these chapters briefly covers the elements of the relevant legislation, examines any difficulties with its administration and makes recommendations for reform.

The chief recommendation of the Review is the enactment of a comprehensive Environment Act. Ideally, such an Act would cover:

• the setting up of a National Environment Board or Council;
• the appointment of a Director of Environment;
• a new scheme of environmental planning to replace the Town and Country Planning Act;
• the introduction of environmental impact assessment requirements;
• comprehensive provision for pollution control;
• the protection of natural and cultural heritage and of traditional artifacts
• effective mechanisms for enforcement.

It must be said however that enacting new legislation though significant, will not be sufficient, the administrative objectives and structures to implement it must also be overhauled. Ideally, the new legislation should itself establish administrative structures where none presently exist, to ensure that the legislation is properly administered. Equally, the shape and contents of modern environment protection legislation in Solomon Islands must be geared to the traditions and needs of the country.

A good philosophical and practical basis for this legislation is Agenda 21, referred to above. Agenda 21 emphasises the need to integrate environmental and developmental concerns at the policy, planning and management levels. To achieve this intgration, it promotes the setting up of effective legal and regulatory frameworks and the use of various economic instruments. It also sets out the need to develop workable programmes to review and enforce compliance with the laws, regulations and standards that are adopted. It states that an element of this should be the setting up of training programmes in environmental law.

In enacting legislation such as that suggested in this Review, Solomon Islands will be at the forefront of Pacific Island Developing Countries concerning the development of mechanisms to promote environmental management. The legislation should improve the ability of the notion to sustainably develop its environment and to meet the needs of the people both at present and into the future.

The Review makes a range of other recommendations which are found in the following pages. The recommendations are referred to by number in the text and are reproduced at the end of each relevant chapter.

The Annex to this Report contains a set of preliminary drafting instructions for an Environment Act. The drafting instructions incorporate a range of ideas derived from discussions with many people during the course of the research and writing of this Report, some of the ideas found in the provincial environmental legislation already in place, as well as the draft environmental legislation produced by two separate legal consultants over the past three years.

The concluding chapter to this Review briefly canvasses the need to set up a new administrative structure. Various options for administrative structures are spelled out in more detail in the Solomon Islands National Environment Management Strategy, which is the main output of the RETA project (RETA 1992). The Strategy should be read in conjunction with this Review.

This report is one of a considerable number prepared in different regions of the earth. The preparation of these reports was initiated by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO as contributions to the Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) review of the state of the marine environment. During their preparation, however, they have developed further into independent publications completely reviewing the state of the marine environment in the region concerned. The South Pacific report has aimed at reviewing knowledge of the marine environment in the subject areas specified by GESAMP Working Group 26 (responsible for the global review) with particular focus on the period from 1980 to 1989.

This report presents the results of a three month study of the sanitary pollution of the marine and fresh water environments around Honiara, Solomon Islands. The report was prepared to relate the input of sewage pollutants to the state of the environment and, to present the health hazards associated with poor sanitary conditions.

The study consisted of water quality assessment techniques that included both physical and microbiological analyses (membrane filter technique for the enumeration of faecal coliforms). Analyses of fish tissues were also conducted to determine levels of coliforms in this important food product.

The results indicated that both the fresh and marine waters of Honiara have severe sewage-related pollution problems. All sewage is either released at the shoreline of the sea or it is pumped directly into the rivers that run through the town. This situation is a serious health hazard that creates the potential for an epidemic. This problem, therefore, requires immediate attention from local government and community authorities.

The infaunal (burrowing) benthos were sampled quantitatively at five lagoon sites in Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay (Fiji), to explore the suitability of using these organisms as pollution indicators. The dominant species were polychaete worms, comprising 87.9% of all organisms collected, and 59.6% of all species. The most abundant and consistently-occurring species were Cossura coasta and Nephtys sp., which are from Families that include species known to be tolerant of pollution in other regions. Shannon-Wiener diversity indices ranged from 1.832 to 2.888, suggesting some loss of biodiversity. There was considerable variability between repeated samples at each site, most notably at Station 2 near the outfall of the Kinoya sewage treatment plant. This station is near the mouth of the Rewa River, which causes large variability in salinity. Sample variability obscured comparisons between stations, yet cluster analysis using the Bray-Curtis index and UPGMA linkage showed Stations 1 and 5 as noticeably distinct.

Station 5 in Suva Harbour, away from most industrialised areas, had the most diverse and abundant fauna (by several indices) and may be suitable in the future as a reference area of least pollution. Station 1 within the Laucala Bay breakwater almost separated from mixed clusters of samples from the other stations. A total of 74 species were sorted, of which 42 occurred in one sample only. Ten of the abundant species were verified in the laboratory of Dr. J. Bailey-Brock, University of Hawaii at Manoa, and a reference collection was subsequently established at the University of the South Pacific. It is concluded that the infaunal benthos has the potential to provide a monitoring system for industrial and sanitary pollution in Fiji lagoons.

The Workshop objectives were to help train Fiji government staff to appraise environmental documents and reports generated by the Namosi copper mine development and to increase community awareness of the submarine tailings issue. In the process, an appraisal of Placer Pacific Ltd.'s Final Environmental Inception Report and the Progress Data Report 1992-1993 was made.

Staff and post-graduate students from the University of South Pacific, representatives of landowners groups, and other groups of concerned citizens also participated. A total of 45 people attended at various times. A list of participants is provided in Appendix A.

The appraisal used two objective models, both Canadian: the ADCAP model rating the data on a scale of 0-4 (highest), and the Clark-Whitfield Model providing 14 points for appraisal.

By the ADCAP criteria, the data to date were given ratings of 3-4. By the Clark-Whitfield Criteria, the environmental Design, Plan and Reporting were satisfactory, but there was insufficient information available to determine whether the other criteria, largely concerning documentation of procedures, were met. Discussion indicated that there was considerably more documentation available than was present in the two reports appraised.

Technical issues of concern involved the need for more data on the depth to which the seawater surface mixed zone will penetrate (particularly during cyclones), the use of a particular (criticised) instrument for oceanographic determinations, and the preliminary information about the levels of copper in the residues from bench scale milling tests. The depth of the surface mixed zone is important in determining at what depth tailings must be discharged to ensure gravity flow to the deep Suva Basin, hence preventing their incursion into coastal waters.

A questionnaire circulated to participants indicated general satisfaction that the training exercise had been beneficial (Appendix B).

The Programme has achieved its several targets for increasing the skills and supply of pollution control scientists, engineers and administrators in the nations of the South Pacific region.

The programme objective, and its unique strength, has been in providing training in the design and implementation of pollution assessments. Pollution controls can only be cost-effective when there are accurate technical assessments. Also facilitating effectiveness, has been the provision of state-of-the-art instrumentation for the assessments, and training in its use.

Thirty-four graduating scientists took and passed the Degree Course in Marine Pollution developed for the University of the South Pacific. The University has now fully taken over the course, and presents it annually. The equipment purchased, and the transfer of skills in its use to teaching staff, allow continuation of the course strength in practical training.

Nine Shortcourse/Workshops presented by UVic staff scientists provided 147 career development opportunities for government, industry, university, college and high school scientists, engineers and admninistrators. The UVic scientists co-operated with the Institute of Applied Sciences, USP, and SPREP (the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme) to work on a further 14 workshops and pollution assessment projects. Both agencies have expanded and continue their work in this topic.

Ten undergraduate students at USP were selected for 10-week work-term attachments to government and university laboratories for hands-on training during pollution assessment projects. Helping initiate projects and the related training were 12 assistants with work-term experience from the UVic Co-operative Education Programme.

The emphasis on practical training in design and implementaton of pollution assessment projects produced from the degree course, the workshops and the student work-terms 58 reports on the state-of-the environment in 8 of the nations that support the University of the South Pacific.

The co-operation between the University of the South Pacific and the University of Victoria has been outstandingly successful in enhancing the capability of South Pacific nations in pollution assessment and control.

Ba River is the site of an intense collision between competing water resource uses. The natural resource value of the river and estuary is high because of fisheries (especially the prized freshwater mussel Kai), mangrove habitat and the value of the water itself for recreation and potential irrigation. Ba Town, small industries and the Fiji Sugar Corporation Rarawai sugar mill (FSC Rarawai) use the river mainly for waste disposal. The progression of agriculture up watershed slopes has undoubtedly contributed to increased flooding and excess sediment loads in the lower river. Department of Drainage and Irrigation are dredging a flood relief channel in the lower river. There have been fish-kills in the river, and the population nearby believe that the Rarawal mill is the main cause of these events as well as general degradation of the aquatic environment. Other potential sources of pollution have not been excluded. We sought to relate water quality in Ba River to the potential sources of pollution.

We made four water quality surveys of Ba River between 10 November 1994 and 26 January 1995. Two surveys were made before the mill ended its 1994 crushing season on 14 December, and two post-crushing. Measurements of salinity and temperature demonstrated that the Ba estuary is nearer to a well-mixed type than a salt wedge type circulation. A trace of salt penetrates upstream on the flood tide about 20km, to Nasolo. Between Nasolo and Nailaga, at about 9km from the river mouth, we observed an oxygen sag accompanied by high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), mild temperature elevation, substantial contamination by faecal coliform bacteria (FC) and often reduced water clarity. The town of Ba is centered at about 15km upstream from the mouth, and FSC Rarawai at 16km from the mouth. Kai beds occur mostly in the region of the oxygen sag.

The oxygen sag was most pronounced during crushing season and dry weather, when oxygen approached zero at all depths for at least 5km of river centered on Ba/FSC Rarawai, when upstream and downstream reference stations had about 6mg02/L. The oxygen sag was partially relieved by increased river flow, but it persisted in a less dramatic form during post-crushing. Temperature elevation of about 1.5 degrees C accompanies the oxygen effect. FSC Rarawai effluent is the major cause of the oxygen sag, but other sources contribute significant BOD loading.

Preliminary modeling showed that the BOD of FSC Rarawai effluent is competent to produce the observed oxygen sag only during extremes of low river flow and high BOD loading. Further work is required to reconcile the observed deep oxygen sag with the smaller calculated effect. FSC has installed an effluent treatment system to reduce BOD. The system was on line for the 1994 crushing season, but it was not operating at full efficiency. Operational improvements are expected to produce favorable results in the river environment.

Faecal coliform bacteria contamination is also greatest in mid-river. FC exceed world standard for primary water contact by factors of 5X to to 1 67X on average in the mid-river and tributary creeks. This represents a substantial health hazard, especially through eating partially-cooked kai. Ba Town is the likely cause of FC pollution. The population of about 11000 have no sewage collection and treatment system, other than pumping out downtown septic tanks for land disposal. Informal sewers and contaminated groundwater undoubtedly drain into the creeks. This situation is expected to improve with progressive connection of urban premises to a new sewage treatment plant, completed in 1995.

This legal Review was drafted in February and April of 1992, as a component of the National Environmental Management Strategy for the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). The legal aspect of this Strategy, as envisioned by the Regional Environmental Technical Assistance Project (RETA), is designed to offer an overview of existing environmental legislation in FSM and a summary of draft legislative initiatives not yet enacted. Further, the Review is constructed to offer suggestions for future legal and administrative irntiatives in a number of specific environmental areas.

Following the Introduction, this Review sets forth the international environmental Conventions and treaties to which FSM is a party. Given the nation's cultural diversity and tradition of independent State action, the Review is then divided into Chapters that focus attention first on the National Government, and then on the four States, ordered geographically from east to west: Kosrae State, Pohnpei State, Chuuk State and Yap State.

The Chapter on National Government is divided into four Sections. A brief survey of FSM's national constitutional and administrative structures is followed by a discussion of environmental health protection, including pollution controls, water quality, waste management and legislation pertaining to zoning, earthmoving and environmental impact assessment. An overview of natural resource protection follows, including discussion of legislative efforts in the fields of fisheries, agriculture, forestry, mining, biodiversity conservation and tourism. A Section on cultural heritage completes the Chapter.

The State Chapters generally follow the National format, with an additional analysis of traditional and statutory systems of land tenure placed after the discussion of pertinent constitutional and administrative structure. The importance of customarily-held lands, both to the Micronesian people and in the arena of environmental regulation, cannot be overemphasized. Communal land ownership in custom is a Micronesian birthright; the conflict between that birthright and government attempts at land management remains a potent issue.

Whenever possible, each area of environmental inquiry within each Chapter is divided into Subsections. An analysis of existing legislation in the field is followed by a Subsection setting forth key legal and administrative issues. Recommendations and proposals are then offered in the final Subsection. Project time limitations ensure brevity in discussions of many important environmental issues; the consultant wishes to emphasize the preliminary nature of this offering, and recommends further exploration of many areas only touched upon in the present Review.

As this Review contemplates an initial survey of environmental legislation in FSM, it provides a foundation for future legislative drafting efforts rather than prematurely offering specific draft language. New legislative initiatives frequently require a readjustment of existing administrative structures; this Review attempts to place analyses of legislative needs in the environmental sector within an appropriate administrative framework. Suggested legislative and administrative changes naturally require FSM Governmental acceptance before specific language proposals are appropriate. Every effort has been made to incorporate principles of sustainable development and respect for traditional and customary practices within the Federated States.

A significant body of environmental law is already in legal effect or in draft form in the Federated States. The existence of such law in a newly-independent developing country is creditable. Although much of the environmental law cited has been drawn from adopted Trust Territory legislation, FSM exhibits a growing legislative commitment to environmental protection. Efforts to fill in regulatory gaps and to make former Trust Territory legislation responsive to present FSM needs will aid establishment of a comprehensive legal framework in defense of the fragile FSM environment.

Conflicting and often competing environmental management responsibilities are now dispersed between different government agencies and embodied in widely varied legislative instruments. Good faith efforts toward common conservation goals are sometimes overshadowed by gaps or overlaps in areas of environmental responsibility. Jurisdictional questions also hamper effective regulatory development and environmental enforcement. The National and State Attorney- General Offices have already initiated a process to disentangle competing environmental oversight claims. National and State governmental agencies charged with environmental responsibilities may wish to clarify functions and interact with greater frequency, so that knowledge may be shared on a more regular basis.

The protection and management of the environment is a uniquely interdisciplinary endeavor, but suffers on occasion in FSM from narrow catagorization as a public health discipline. The field further suffers from lack of public awareness regarding the profound consequences of environmental degradation. This perspective is entirely natural in a developing country such as FSM, whose overwhelming beauty and natural abundance is only now encountering processes that may lead to significant environmental decay. Development, and its attendant environmental impacts, is inevitable, and in many cases desirable. Only broad public education will effect a change from uncontrolled to sustainable development. The drafting and enforcement of environmental protection legislation, and education about that legislation, assists the process whereby an informed public may wisely manage its resources.

This Legal Review was drafted in October and December of 1991 as a component of the National Environmental Management Strategy for the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI). The legal aspect of this Strategy, as envisioned by the Regional Environmental Technical Assistance Project (RETA), is designed to offer an overview of existing environmental legislation in RMI and a summary of draft legislative initiatives not yet enacted. Further, the Review is constructed to provide suggestions for future legal and administrative initiatives in ten specific environmental areas.

The Recommendations of this Review are set out after the Introduction. The Review then gives a brief history of RMI's emergence as an independent constitutional democracy and a survey of its present constitutional and administrative structures. International environmental Conventions and Treaties to which RMI is a party are next listed, followed by a brief analysis of traditional and statutory systems of land tenure. The importance of customarily-held lands, both to the Marshallese people and in the arena of environmental regulation, cannot be overemphasized. Communal land ownership in custom is a Marshallese birthright; the conflict between that birthright and government attempts at land management remains a potent issue.

Ten chapters delineating separate areas of environmental and cultural protection follow the contextual overview. These areas cover environmental planning, marine and land-based living and non-living resources, pollution controls over air, land and sea, biodiversity conservation, cultural heritage and tourism. Each Chapter is divided into four sections: Administrative Structures, Existing Legislation, Key Issues, and Recommendations. Proposals for future environmental needs at the end of each Chapter are summarized in Chapter 5, "General Conclusions and Recommendations".

As this Review contemplates an initial survey of environmental legislation in RMI, it provides a foundation for future legislative drafting efforts rather than prematurely offering specific draft language. New legislative initiatives frequently require a readjustment of existing administrative structures; this Review attempts to place analyses of legislative needs in the environmental sector within an appropriate administrative framework. Suggested legislative and administrative changes naturally require RMI Governmental acceptance before specific language proposals are appropriate. Finally, every effort has been made to incorporate principles of sustainable development and respect for traditional and customary practices within the Republic.

The purpose of this small report is to summarize an investigation conducted in January until the beginning of February 1994 on the seawater and shellfish analysis in South Tarawa atoll, Republic of Kiribati. The year 1977 was an important period that marked the initial construction on sewerage systems with public toilets blocks in South Tarawa. This followed the cholera epidemic which struck the country in that time, particularly on South Tarawa. These sewerage systems, however, were only used by a small portion of people and they were often broke down and the maintenance usually took so long and very slow.

This investigation concluded that lagoon waters were more polluted than the ocean waters throughout South Tarawa. And where there was high population density, there would be always more bacterial contamination. WHO bacterial standard for swimming and bathing were exceeded at 10 lagoon sites and all the 3 ocean sites, but, the ocean outfall sites had lower Faecal Coliform (FC) levels than those at the lagoon sites. Moreover, the seawater contamination was relative to the shellfish contamination. That is lagoon waters that experienced high bacterial contamination were also experienced high shellfish bacterial contaimination. Also the seagrass grounds were more polluted than deepwater grounds. However, the level of bacterial contamination for shellfish throughout the eastern part of South Tarawa all exceeded the Natural Sanitation Shellfish Program bacterial standards.

Furthermore, it is important to note that there were certain factors that often caused the variation in FC measurement. These were due to different tidal cycles and levels and the temperatures as not constant daily.

These issues were, for sure, needed to be pronounced. The government and local communties were both urged to come together in a mutual decision of how they should go about with such deteriorating marine environment.

The author investigated the effects of domestic waste on the marine and groundwater quality in Tarawa Atoll, Republic of Kiribati during 1993. Following a 1977 cholera outbreak and studies which showed high bacterial contamination of lagoon waters and edible shellfish, sewerage Systems with public toilet blocks and ocean outfalls were constructed in South Tarawa. Presently the sewerage system is used by only a fraction of the population, and bacterial contamination and elevated levels of nutrients persist.

Bacterial pollution in waters surrounding South Tarawa have increased since the initial study in 1979. Mean faecal coliform concentrations exceeded WHO bacterial standards for swimming and bathing (>350/100 ml) at 7 of 12 lagoon sites and at 2 of 3 ocean outfall sites, with the highest levels (>2000/100 ml) in the eastern corner of the lagoon. Faecal coliforms in edilble shellfish exceeded U.S. National Health Standards at all sites. Contamination of groundwater in South Tarawa was above drinking water standards at all wells, including 12 of 18 wells which exceeded WHO bathing standards. Contrary to observations in 1987, nutrients were not elevated in Tarawa lagoon, and no depletion of oxygen in bottom waters was observed. Elevated plankton biomass was observed off South Tarawa most notably for the south-eastern corner of the lagoon where chlorophyll (a) and plankton dry weight values were 1.56 and 21.39 mg/m3 respectively. The lagoon had a healthy assemblage of phytoplankton, with no species characteristic of sewage pollution.

While the health of the lagoon ecosystem is presently good, bacterial contamination of lagoon waters, groundwater, and edible shellfish are high and pose a severe health risk to residents of South Tarawa.

This document outlines environmental responsibilities at fish processing plants. Waste loadings at existing plants are summarised. Pollution control procedures are reviewed. Narrative and numerical guidelines for effluents and marine receiving waters are provided.

Guiding principles are that waste discharges and their deleterious components be minimized. Fish processing and reduction plants must have waste treatment systems, and reduction plants must discharge no effluents. Processing plant effluents may be discharged to marine receiving waters. The discharge point must be at a well-flushed location. A 30 metre radius initial dilution zone is allowed to permit dilution of the effluent to meet receiving water guidelines.

New fish processing plants must undertake appropriate environmental studies to document their expectation of meeting these Guidelines. Monitoring of effluent and receiving waters will be required to establish that the Guidelines are being met. Monitoring frequency will be adjusted to the environmental situation at each site.

Processing plants may be required to upgrade their treatment systems, and on request are to provide an upgrading plan and schedule to meet requirements of the Regulatory Agency.

There were generally raised levels of coliform bacteria at most sites sampled along the Honiara waterfront in January and February 1993. Very high values at 3,400 - 350,000 fecal coliforms/100 mls were recorded at three sampling sites near sewage outfalls. These results confirm previous reports at other times of year that the shoreline is contaminated by sewage wastes to a level where there is risk of epidemics of water-borne infectious diseases. Use of the most contaminated areas should be discouraged by appropriate warning signs. Appropriate sewage treatment strategies are needed.

Nutrient (nitrite) levels along shore are higher than normal, although no excessive algal growths were observed during the survey.

Noro sea front is generally polluted. Approaching the constriction at Diamonds Narrow, the nutrient (Nitrate, Nitrite, Ammonia and Phosphate) levels are low and dissolved oxygen levels are high which indicate a more healthy water quality. The four stations (sites 1,2,3,4) toward the open sea however have elevated combined inorganic nitrogen levels as high as 2724 ug/l which represent a twenty fold increase above the average for sites 5 and 6 (table 4).

From the nutrient status of the sample stations, it appears the bulk of effluent and nutrient enriched water doesn't eventuate in the constricted Vonavona lagoon (fig 1.). This is supported by very distinct effluent plumes stretching at least 5 kilometres into open sea at times though non was detected moving inwards towards Diamond Narrows. These results compared earlier studies of Marovo lagoon and assuming comparable conditions suggest the quality of Noro sea front is fast declining with respect to nutrient status (Naidu et al, 1990).

The nutrient data also correlated well with dissolved oxygen which at the surface at station 2 is at least half the concentration of rest of the other sites. Outside the bay, however, dissolved Oxygen levels are comparable to the rest of the other sites.

These results therefore suggest that despite direction of wastes outside into the open sea by ocean currents which reduced the risk of eutrophication, better waste management measures must be implemented fast. Changes in current flow into the lagoon could be of unparalleled consequence if it does occur. It is therefore recommended that the responsible authorities be encouraged into providing more sound treatment procedures other than direct discharge into the ocean.

During the joint Fijian-French ASTRO cruise conducted in April 1994 in the Great Astrolabe lagoon, the soft bottom macrobenthos was quantitatively investigated at 25 sampling stations, using a 0.1 m2 Smith-McIntyre grab. At each station, sediment was sampled with a total 1 m2 area (10 replicate grabs) A total of 207 taxa were identified. Shannon diversity index is 4.12 (se 0.53). The fauna is dominated by molluscs, polychaetes and crustaceans which represent about 80% of the total number of individuals. The total biomass is 4.7 (se 1.6) gAFDW m-2. Macrophytic biomass accounts for 40% of the total organic matter. The distribution of biomass among the trophic groups reveal a dominance of suspension feeders (44%), deposit swallowers (27%) and carnivores (2%).

The soft sediments of the backreef areas of tropical lagoons are home to a diverse and rich benthic fauna. Sampling by remote Smith-Mcintyre grab, operated from a boat equipped with a hydraulic winch, makes replicated samples a realistic option. In shallow lagoons, unsuitable for the operation of a large boat, or where a hydraulic winch is not available, useful samples can be obtained by using either a hand-operated winch deploying a Ponar grab or by sampling sediments by digging in the intertidal zone. The sediments are dominated by polychaetes, molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms. The larger samples (10 x 0.1 m2) taken by the Smith-Mcintyre Crab from the Great Astrolabe Reef Lagoon (GARL) are likely to be a better reflection of the actual species composition of the benthic infauna than the much smaller samples (2 x O.05m2 ) taken by the Ponar grab or by digging from the intertidal zone of the Tarawa Lagoon (3 x 0.05m2 x 20cm). Tarawa lagoon was subject to organic enrichment from land based anthropogenic sources and it is likely that this has had an influence on both the abundance and diversity of the macrofauna. The lagoon is shallow, and the construction of road bridges without culverts between the atolls of South Tarawa has reduced the interchange of the lagoonal water with the clean oceanic water. Molluscs and crustaceans seem less able to compete in this assemblage than the annelids. The GAR lagoon was relatively unpolluted and was not enriched by nutrients and organic matter from the several villages within its barrier reef. The higher species diversity recorded may have been related to the different sampling methods employed. However, the lagoon is deep, and well-flushed with clean oceanic water. Molluscs, crstaceans and annelids are equally represented in the assemblage at about 25% of the total species present.

Comparison is made between the invertebrate benthic in- fauna of the Great Astrolable Reef Lagoon (GAR), Fiji, situated 18 degrees 45'S and l78 degrees 30'E and the Tarawa Lagoon (TL), Kiribati sited to the north at 0l degrees 20'N and l73 degrees 30'E. Twenty-five sampling stations from the GAR were compared to 20 stations from TL. The sampling methodology was different due to the differences in water depths. In both sites the fauna was dominated by polychaetes, molluscs and crustacea but in TL polychaetes increased their dominance to 53% of the species found. These results are discussed in relation to the known organic enrichment of the TL.

The effects of domestic waste on the marine benthos of Tarawa Atoll, Republic of Kiribati was investigated during 1994. Recent studies show bacterial contamination of lagoon waters due to a generalized, direct sewage discharge is high. An East- West gradient of faecal colifom levels, increasing to the East has been established.

Preliminary sampling was performed at two stations, background and impacted, to determine if a pollution effect could be seen in the benthic community structure, and if so, to develop an appropriate sampling design to describe this effect. The presence of marine oligochaetes, particulary at the background station, combined with eastward decreasing particle sizes suggested that further studies should focus on potential pollution effects.

Five one-km long North-South transect lines were established in South Tarawa each containing 4 sites. A total of 1945 individuals across 104 taxa were found. Polychaeta totalled 50.0% of the taxa and were present across all stations. Mollusca and Cnidaria were most dominant at the eastern end of the lagoon. Bray- Curtis cluster analysis showed strong linkages between replicates, therefore pooling was used for further analysis of community structure and diversity indices. A second cluster analysis using pooled sites produced no E-W or N-S gradient in species distribution. Diversity values were low to moderate.

The benthos at this time is determined to not be impacted by sewage pollution. The biological community in general may be experiencing a cascade effect that could eventually result in exteme polluion. Some suggestions are made regarding further monitoring for pollution and it is recommended that the reference collection developed be verified by regional taxonomic experts.

A survey of marine prosobranch gastropods conducted during the austral winter of 1983 in the vicinity of the Moupore Island Research Station yielded 268 species in ninety-six genera and forty-four families. An additional six species of marine shelled opisthobranch and pulmonate gastropods were also collected. Subsequent collections have produced an additional 130 species, forty-four genera and nine families. No new species were discovered but two new records from Papua New Guinea were noted. Additional sampling, especially of deep-water habitats and minute forms, will undoubtedly produce many more species.

A case study is described which seeks to explain some of the key factors in the rationale, development, delivery and evaluation of a series of in-company process/technology training courses. The main points to emerge are the benefit to the training experience associated with interactive delivery and the advantages that are associated with developing group exercises which are coordinated with, and embedded within a site visit, and which are reviewed and discussed during a post-visit debriefing session. Guidance is given on ways of including these activities into training courses together with methods for evaluating their effectiveness.

The mass balance of carbon, silicon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in the lagoon of Christmas Island has been calculated. There is no net silicon flux, consistent with the composition of coral reef systems. Dissolved organic nitrogen is released by the lagoonal system and exported. Carbon, phosphorus, and inorganic nitrogen are all slowly taken up by the system. The ratio of net inorganic N:P uptake matches the compositional ratio of incoming water and is very low in comparison with the compositional ratio of benthic plants.

The observed patterns of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus flux can be explained by a relatively simple model. Net metabolism of this system — and that of other confined water bodies — is limited by the availability of phosphorus. Just sufficient nitrogen is fixed to use the available phosphorus. Export of dissolved organic nitrogen simply removes a largely unutilized by-product of the nitrogen fixation.

The smaller island nations in the South Pacific Ocean depend on the sea for their sustenance and economic growth. The resultant conflict in the historical multiple use of the sea has given the Pacific microstates a dilemma: the proper management of their marine resources, both the living and non-living, in view of the interplay of domestic and foreign interests in the development of such resources, considering the fragility and incapability of these island nations to effectively provide counter measures without sacrificing national sovereignty and pride.

This study presents such a scenario from the experience of managing marine resources in the Republic of Kiribati. An examination of the historical, contemporary and potential forces impinging on the political economy of Kiribati waters is made and analysed. The traditional sea tenure, the colonial administration and influence and the Law of the Sea and its implications: delimitation of maritime boundaries, regionalisation, access agreements and the development of non-living resources, are discussed in considerable detail.

The major concerns of marine resource management in a specific ocean region are brought out in the work, based on work experience and good source materials, including access to official archives. These include the respective contributions of local and western values in the policy process; the issue of centralisation of marine affairs within Kiribati; the need for co-operation; the problems of maintaining local interests within an international framework, the evolving technical management fields which form the foundations of effective marine resource management, and the need for an effective education system in the widest sense. The thesis highlights the need to adopt an integrated management approach towards the field.

In response to the Fiji Public Works Department's need to expand the Kinoya sewage treatment plant to accommodate the greater Suva region's continued growth, we performed a study of two local sewage treatment plants, which discharge through mangrove swamps, to determine if the mangal was capable of acting as a sink for excess nutrients. Nutrient enrichment threatens to eutrophicate the reefs and nearshore waters which support Fiji's fisheries and tourism.

Literature suggests that the mangals can absorb large amounts of nutrients. Our results do not support this theory. We found that prompt decreases in nutrients were attributable mainly to dilution of the relatively small volume of effluent in larger receiving waters.

Field investigations of both the Vatuwaqa and Labasa rivers showed that retention time sufficient to permit significant uptake of nutrients by mangals could only be obtained by ponding with costly alteration of the hydrology. Mangroves are sensitive to even slight changes in hydrology. It is also suspected that the mangal could not sustainably remove high levels of nutrients. Furthermore, at least 10 km2 of mangal would be needed to treat effluent from a facility the size of Kinoya, which serves 60,000 people of Suva. Such an area is not available near the plant. For these reasons we do not recommend the use of the mangrove swamps for tertiary treatment or even effluent polishing of sewage treatment plant effluent.

Fiji corresponds to many people's image of the idyllic South Seas setting - white sandy beaches, coral reefs teeming with tropical fish, and friendly people enjoying the relaxed pace of a tropical paradise. Increasingly, however, Fiji is developing, and not always in an environmentally benign way. Problems already exist, ranging from litter, to fisheries management, to sanitary waste disposal, to improperly discharged industrial effluents. Other problems are sure to arise as development proceeds.

The protection presently offered to the environment by Fiji law does not address the current problems and will prove even more inadequate as new problems arise. The environmental legislative regime is spread over 54 statutes. Each piece of legislation was developed to confront one problem, and may overlap with other legislative initiatives. There is minimal coordination between the various pieces of legislation and the ministries and agencies that administer them, and many aspects of the environment receive no protection at all. For example, the only comprehensive protection offered to marine waters applies solely in Fiji ports. There are only three designated ports. As another example, environmental impact assessments are not mandated by statute for any type of development in Fiji. Environmental assessment and protection measures are often included in an ancillary way at many land use negotiations, but without any legal requirement that they be.

The property ownership regime in Fiji and its tradition of customary law present unique challenges to providing legal mechanisms to protect the environment. Eighty-three percent of the land in Fiji is held in trust for native Fijians, and there are strongly recognized rights to the inshore fishery for various village groups and long held views of which species can be harvested at which times. As with all parts of the world, Fiji experiences difficulties with compliance and enforcement of its environmental laws. Lack of awareness, lack of concern and lack of enforcement resources contribute to this difficulty.

The future, however, of legal safeguards for protection of the environment in Fiji shows promise. New, all encompassing environmental legislation, provisionally titled the Sustainable Development Bill, is being drafted. This legislative initiative is using broad-based consultation prior to drafting the Bill in an attempt to meet all existing and projected needs. The drafters of the Bill plan to bring together all the divergent elements of the current legislative framework under one legislative roof for a more comprehensive and manageable approach. Many of the existing gaps in the legislation will be filled. Enforcement difficulties will always exist, but the broad-based consultations hope to at least identify current difficulties and to create enforcement mechanisms which are within the means of the enforcing bodies. This encouraging initiative shows potential to address many of Fiji's environmental concerns at a stage relatively early in its industrialization.