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abstracts for
4 Coastal & Island Mines

abstracts for 4.2 South America

Anon. 1990. Peru: Economic and Social Development Based on its Mining Industry. A Proposal Prepared by the Mining Industry of Peru and the Mining Commission of the Ministry of Energy and Mines. 84pp., BOX: 10.

Abstract:

ABOUT THE DOCUMENT

The present document has been developed by the Consulting Commission of the Ministry of Energy and Mines of Peru as a proposal from the Peruvian mining industry towards mining development in the next two decades.

The document consists of 84 pages, 10 maps, 5 appendixes and 59 technical index cards.

ABOUT THE ELABORATION

The work was started on December 1989 and finished on May 1990. It was directed by the Sub Commission on Mining of the Ministry of Energy and Mines and a team of five professionals. Two international experts have participated and interviews were conducted and information gathered from one hundred people. One hundred documents have been consulted among books; studies and technical profiles as well as travel to Colombia and Brazil to collect experiences.

ABOUT THE CONTENTS

The work contains 64 projects which may be carried out between 1990 and 2010 and which demand an investment of 6,970 million dollars, which can multiply fivefold the value of the mining production, that is, take it to a value of 70 billion dollars in twenty years, which means making it grow at an annual rate of 8.5%.

Included are 13 projects for production of non-ferrous metals, 4 for production of gold, one for production of phosphates, one for production of coal and one for production of uranium; also, 9 projects for metallurgical installations, 73 projects for energy generation, 76 projects for energy transmission, one housing project, one port infrastructure project, two road construction projects and one communications project.

Developing these projects will have the following results: copper production will increase in 330,000 FMT per year; zinc production in 40,000 FMT per year; lead in 3,000 FMT per year; silver in 72, 000 kilograms per year; gold in 2,000 kgs. per year; phosphates in 1.5 million tons per year coal in 360,000 tons per year.

The metallurgical installations foreseen include the processing of 103,000 FMT per year of zinc, 58,000 FMT per year of copper; 6,000 FMT per year of tin, 5'300,000 tons of iron ores, 7.7 million ounces per year of silver; 26,000 ounces per year of gold and 300 tons per day of oxygen.

The energy projects include the generation of 977 megawatts and the construction of 2,560 kms. of transmission lines.

(return to Coastal & Island Mines)

Dames & Moore. 1986. Environmental Effects of Mine Tailings Discharged into the Coastal Zone Near Ite, Peru. 1986 Field Study or Southern Peru Copper Corporation. BOX: 10.

Executive Summary:

BACKGROUND

Southern Peru Copper Corporation (SPCC) has been extracting copper from its Toquepala mine for over 25 years, and from the Cuajone mine for about 10 years. When the Cuajone mine operation came on line, the volume of mill tailings approximately doubled to the present level of about 82,000 mt/day. The tailings are carried in a slurry of about 55 percent solids from the mine sites toward the sea along previously dry stream beds. The slurry joins the channel of the Rio Locumba seaward of the Pan American Highway after all the usable river water has been drawn off for irrigation. The slurry with its small seasonal addition of river water then proceeds to the coast at Playa Inglesa where marine forces of waves and currents distribute the solids on the backshore, along the beach in both directions from the channel mouth and offshore. While the tailings discharge into Bahia de Ite has unique environmental characterizations and conditions, which are evaluated in this study, it is only one of over 20 mines of the world that dispose of their tailings in the ocean.

In 1976 Dames & Moore examined the cumulative effects of the tailings discharge from the Toquepala mine on the coastal environment in the vicinity of Ite, Peru, and assessed the probable effects of the future additions from the Cuajone operation. In 1986 an updated assessment was undertaken, including a new survey and also making quantitative predictions of future impacts using a computer model.

This study plan was designed specifically to be able to assess impacts from the disposal of the Toquepala/Cuajone mine tailings at Bahia de Ite. It is a multidisciplinary investigation that incorporates evaluations of:

These parameters are compared to an analogous "control" site, which is at Rio Sama, 40 km to the south. This control area was selected because it is the adjacent river drainage and so has similar geological sources of natural sediments without tailings, and the marine environment is similar to Bahia de Ite without any possible influence from tailings.

This report is the result of the 1986 resurvey. In general these findings corroborate the previous (1976) assessment, i.e.:

HABITAT EFFECTS
Beach Growth:

At the time of the 1975/76 survey the growth of the beach at Playa Inglesa was confined between the headland at Punta Alfarillo and the tailings created tombolo at Islote Ite (now Punta Ite). This 1986 survey shows that the beach in this area is now prograding at about 40 to 60 m of new beach width per year. Of the approximately 32,000 cubic meters of tailings per day reaching the coast, 30 to 40% are retained on the beach. A significant change since the l976 survey is the finding that beach material (the coarser fraction of the tailings) is now also accumulating beyond Punta Ite in the pocket beach north of Punta Brava. Finer material being transported laterally in the surf zone now extends upcoast beyond Punta Alfarillo toward Punta Santa Rosa, and downcoast beyond Punta Brava toward Punta Meca Grande.

The grain size of the tailings beach is finer than natural sand beaches in the region, and does not support the fauna that dominates in control areas (sand crabs, shore crabs and surf clams).

Rocky Habitat:

Rocky intertidal habitat is very common along the southern Peru coastline between Ilo and Rio Sama, and is biologically very productive. Artisanal fisheries for shellfish (by intertidal hand-picking and sub-tidal diver harvesting) are common from Ilo southward to Rio Sama and beyond. This habitat is not unique or rare in southern Peru. A small portion of this rocky habitat in the vicinity adjacent to Playa Inglesa has been covered by tailings sands, or has been impacted by suspended tailings particulates in the surf water.

The beach growth causes impoundment of coastal and nearshore rocky habitat by the tailings and has taken those habitats out of production as places to support the artisanal shellfish fisheries for mussels, lapas, tolina and caracol. Fine suspended tailings particles in the rocky intertidal area have eliminated most snails and mussels between Punta Brava and a point about 1/3 of the way from Punta Alfarillo to Punta Santa Rosa. This has allowed rapid growth and surface cover dominance by green algae.

Offshore rocky habitats in the area between Punta Alfarillo and Punta Brava support a very limited shellfish fauna. On the basis of the data from this study, it is concluded that the reduction in molluscs from that seen in control areas is a result of smothering from high concentrations of suspended fine tailings material.

Benthic Habitat:

The remaining finer fraction of the tailings not deposited on the beach and in the surf zone is transported offshore and deposited in deeper water with a general trend of decreasing grain size with increasing depth and distance from shore. The findings from this survey indicate that measureable tailings deposition extends offshore between the 70 and 100 m depth contours, and has about the same lateral extent as the observed spread of fine sediments nearshore. The tailings form a benthic habitat with finer sediments than at control stations. The tailings sediments also have a narrower range of grain sizes than at control stations. As a result of the grain size differences fewer numbers of infaunal species and fewer individuals are found in the tailings fan than at comparable depth control stations. However, numbers of species and of individuals of demersal fish are comparable between control and tailings discharge area samples.

Fish:

Nearshore fisheries for finfish (gill netting) were observed at Meca Grande during this field investigation, and is understood to be common elsewhere along this coastline. In order to evaluate fish populations offshore Playa Inglesa, trawl sampling was carried out. Samples of demersal fish Playa Inglesa (see Photo 15) indicate that even in the midst of active tailings depositional areas offshore there is thriving sealife. These trawl samples differed from the correlative control samples in terms of species composition. This difference is attributed to the decreased visibility from the tailings, such that the species in the tailings area are predators that find food by smell and feel rather than sight. Some juvenile individuals were caught as well as adults.

These data support the interpretation that the tailings do not have a significant toxic effect to sealife. This is further supported by an observation (and photograph) during the bathymetric surveying of two porpoises apparently feeding inside turbid rip currents near the mouth of the discharge channel; these animals find their prey by sound (acoustics), not sight.

CHEMICAL EFFECTS
Sediments:

The distribution of marine plants and animals in the discharge area gave no suggestion of any toxic chemical effects. The sands have elevated copper content relative to the sands of the "control" beach at Rio Sama. Other trace metals tested were arsenic, lead, iron and mercury; these were found to be generally lower in concentration in the tailings area than in the control samples.

Copper levels are highest in beach samples and in surf zone water samples, and these decrease in concentration with alongshore distance from the discharge channel. Copper levels are lower in nearshore (surf zone to about 25 m depth, in this case) sediment samples than on the beach, but increase to concentrations near those of beach samples with the increase in fine sediments at the deepest water stations.

The finer sediments deposited deeper than 25 m are estimated to represent about 30 to 40 percent of the total tailings discharge. These fine deeper deposits of tailings are intermixed with the natural silts and clays of the continental shelf by the passage of storm waves. This periodic and temporary resuspension of the tailings fines may cause some leaching of copper into the bottom waters, but over time the mixing will mitigate this effect by dilution of the sediment and burial away from the seawater interface.

Seawater:

Offshore water column concentrations of copper were generally lower in near bottom samples than near surface samples, and concentrations generally decreased offshore. Most of the copper in the slurry is bound to the particulate phase during its transport to the sea. On contact with the relatively less basic seawater there is a release of copper to the dissolved phase that results in the elevated surf zone levels observed. The dissolved copper is quickly scavenged by the fine particulates in suspension in the surf zone leading to a rapid drop in the dissolved concentrations alongshore away from the discharge point and offshore. Elutriate tests suggest that copper can be dissociated from surficial sediments by storm wave disturbance in shallow water, but the near bottom samples would suggest that test levels are not maintained by bottom waters, but are again scavenged and returned to the sediments.

Other seawater tests during this study were standard oceanographic parameters, including termperature, salinity, pH, total suspended solids (TSS) and dissolved oxygen (DO). The dissolved oxygen values were low, however a link between the tailings and low DO was not established. Based upon substantial historical scientific literature, as well as according to the Peruvian scientific observers participating in the field study, low DO is common along this coast. The oceanic oxygen minimum zone apparently extends over the narrow shelf here and into nearshore waters. This is supported by some black anoxic sediments sampled from the control area offshore Rio Sama.

Tissues:

Tissue levels of copper were highly elevated in mussels, but these organisms are known for their tendency to concentrate copper. Their small size and the probable inclusion of fine sediments with the tissues (as indicated by the extraordinary iron levels in the mussel tissue samples) are the likely explanation for the extent of the apparent concentration. Fish tissue samples were comparable between discharge area and regional control values. Neither the mussels or fish collected in the discharge area for metals analysis evidenced any signs of stress. Other potentially toxic metals tested in tissues (arsenic, lead and mercury) showed no prominent distributional patterns related to the tailings discharge, and their concentrations were comparable (sometimes lower) relative to the control stations.

PREDICTIONS

A computer simulation model was run to estimate the potential configuration of tailings material over the next 30 years. In general, the mooel shows that the present beach would continue to fill the embayment until there is an essentially straight coastline between Punta Meca Grande and Punta Alfarillo. The beach would spill beyond those points and impound some part of the rocky shore toward Punta Picata and Punta San Pablo, but would be unlikely to exceed those headlands. The results of this lateral expansion into rocky habitat would include a strong reduction in the nearshore shellfish populations, reduction or eliminaton of the shellfish fisheries in the area, and a reduction of the offshore sediment dwelling infauna. Some mitigation of these effects may be possible, as discussed in Aprendix D. Rocky area fish populations would also be reduced, but fish associated with sediment bottoms and pelagic fish are not likely to be measurably impacted.

In the future, the area should exhibit a relatively fast recovery following cessation of tailings discharge because of the lack of strong chemical effects, and because one of the strongest causes of impact is the turbidity effect upon the rocky intertidal. Some dissolution of trace metals will continue for a few years until the mixing of the tailings with the natural sediments removes the active materials from the system. Based upon the data and observations from this study, marine toxic impacts from the discharge are not anticipated.

After a quarter of a century of potential impact from tailings discharge, there is no obvious serious distress in the area beyond the effects itemized by this investigation. If there were serious problems in the marine environment, these would be expected to be observable and measureable by now. Therefore the forecast of impacts is made with confidence based upon actual experience.

(return to Coastal & Island Mines)

Diaz, D.B., J.B. Reyes, J.R.T. Huaman and F.C. Ramos. 1991. The Irrational Water Management by the Mining Industry in the south of Peru. Draft Case Document with Appendices: Southern Peru Copper Corporation. BOX: 10.

Summary:

This document presents the company against which the claim has been filed, describing its activities and interests in the action. It must be emphasized that we are dealing with the most important copper mining company in Peru and that it is a member of solid international consortiums. Its philosophy regarding the action is to obtain maximum profit at a minimum cost; consequently it does not have any purification system for its waste.

Gases, slag and tailings are expelled untreated into the environment with a negative effect on different human activities (agriculture, fishing, recreation and tourism) and on human health. At the same time it has produced deterioration of the ecological systems, and pollution of both terrestrial and maritime bodies of water.

In the claim, SPCC is accused of:

  1. Being responsible for extracting water of high quality from river basins in the high Andes with a resulting negative impact on the Locumba and Moquegua river basins and thereby affecting water available for domestic and agricultural purposes.
  2. Of dumping tailings into the sea, and in the process destroying the Locumba river basin and the Bay of Ite, whose ecological systems have lost their biodiversity. A report is included concerning the disastrous impact which the accumulation of solids, the rusting of metals on the beach, among others, have had on the affected area, with subsequent damage to the typical fauna and flora of the area.
  3. At the Ilo Smelter, the dumping of 2,100 metric tons of slag per day into the sea, produces a deterioration in the natural landscape, the extention of the line of the beach out to sea, and causes the fish and shellfish to disappear from the rocky tidal area.
  4. Of emitting gases which are polluting the neighbouring marine environment due to the effects of the fly particles on the marine environment causing health problems in the population and reducing fish stocks.
  5. Of destroying the ecosystem of natural coastal pasturage (hills) surrounding the Smelter. The affected area (+/- 20 km2) has became a desert.

The necessary evidence is presented both in the claim and in the studies included as addenda. The following are the most important:

Legal dispositions which have been analyzed show that standards of administration have not been complied with, and that crimes have been committed by SPCC in the ecological damage inflicted.

We have taken special care in determining the scale of the Action, taking into account the historical aspects, the social players implicated, the conflicts, and the current situation of the Actions.

The effects and damages have been evaluated qualitatively, given the non-existence of facts which would permit a quantitative analysis.

The different alternatives proposed here in response to the aspirations of the regional community concerning solutions to this problem.

(return to Coastal & Island Mines)

Rescan Environmental Consultants Inc. 1991. Tailings Disposal Offshore Feasibility Study February 1991. Report for Southern Peru Copper Corporation., Oversize, BOX: 21.

Executive Summary:

BACKGROUND

Two open pit copper mines, Cuajone and Toquepala, are operated by Southern Peru Copper Corporation in the western Andes of southern Peru. The ore is crushed and concentrated on site, and the resulting tailing slurry is conveyed some 100 km largely by gravity flow down natural transitory watercourses to the Pacific Ocean at Playa Inglesa, originally a narrow cobble beach formed by the outflow of the Rio Locumba. Tailings discharge began in 1960 with the Toquepala operation and was supplemented in 1976 with the Cuajone operation. The combined operations are expected to continue for another 18 to 20 years.

Environmental concerns in the 1970's led eventually to the completion of an impact assesment in 1986, in which the principal environmental consequence of tailings discharge in the area was identified as gradual lateral and seaward growth of the beach due to classification of the tailings deposit. Changes in biological habitat and chemical environment were also noted. A significant impact along the shoreline is the chemical oxidation of pyritic material which leads to low pH water with high concentrations of dissolved metals such as copper.

In the process of exploring other options of tailings disposal, SPCC commissioned Rescan to study and evaluate the feasibility of submarine disposal. The study was to include engineering design, estimation of capital, operating, and maintenance costs, and an assessment of the environmental implications of the proposed disposal plan.

The selection of Punta San Pablo, the southernmost rocky boundary of Bahia de Ite, as the most promising site for offshore disposal was based on the steep seafloor slope as indicated by existing bathymetric charts. The development of a study plan resulted from reconnaissance of the area in late October of 1989 by senior Rescan personnel. This disposal option would entail building a pipeline to transport the tailings slurry by gravity from the Rio Locumba canyon to Punta San Pablo, a distance of 25 km, and would include construction of a headworks for diverting the slurry and a discharge system capable of simultaneously withstanding the anticipated subsea currents and of depositing the tailings in such a manner that they remain on the ocean floor. While specific geological, topographic, meteorological, and some oceanographic information needed to design the pipeline system was already available, some additional data were needed, as were data for the environmental assessment. This information was obtained during two field trips in which current meter moorings were deployed (August of 1990) and recovered (October of 1990).

ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY

The objective of the study was to investigate the feasibility of transporting the tailings from the Rio Locumba to a suitable point on the coast and to discharge the slurry into a submarine area of adequate capacity to store 18-20 years of production at a milling rate of 90,000 tonnes per day.

Consideration was given to the need for a pipeline system which would resist wear and not be liable to sanding and blockage. The design would also need to deal with substantial variations in flow rate and solids content.

The system proposed consists of a 42" nominal diameter high density polyethylene (HDPE) pipeline 25 km long to transport the tailings from the Rio Locumba at an elevation of 134 m to the coast at Punta San Pablo (shown in red in Figure 1). The pipeline is designed for a nominal flow rate of 1.7 m3/s at 45% solids by weight (26,948 USGPM). At this nominal flow rate the pipe is partially full. At a full pipe (non-pressurized) condition the flow can be increased to 2.3 m3/s or 120,000 tonnes/day. Pipe gradients range from 0.45% to 0.61% and velocities from 2.4 rn/s to 3.0 rn/s at the nominal design flow rate. These velocities are well above the limiting settling velocity of the slurry, but low enough to control excessive wear. As noted the flow rate can increase for short durations without causing any significant adverse hydraulic effects.

The tailings slurry is diverted from the Rio Locumba into the pipeline through intake headworks. This consists of a low dam across the Rio with a spillway weir designed to allow flash floods to overtop the dam. To avoid sanding conditions, control mechanisms were designed into the structure which permit closure of the discharge line and diversion during extreme low flow.

The pipeline is divided into three main sections, the Rio Locumba canyon, the plateau, and the ocean shoreline. Each section has different topographical characteristics andslightly different pipeline gradients. Nevertheless, the slope within each section is kept constant.

The HDPE "SDR 32.5" pipe will be supplied in 18 m lengths and will be butt fusion welded on site into a continuous pipeline. It is anticipated that at least two welding machines will be used together with appropriate mobile equipment. The pipeline will be anchored at 60 m intervals. The pipeline will be bedded throughout on a carefully graded bench of granular material. An access road will also be constructed for use during pipelaying and for subsequent maintenance.

At Punta San Pablo the tailings discharge into a concrete drop box linked to a cylindrical steel mixtank which is partially submerged and anchored to the seabed. Seawater is drawn into the tank through an intake pipeline by differential head and mixed with the tailings to give a dilution of approximately 1:1. The mixtank allows deaeration of the tailings slurry thus minimizing the air entrainment down the outfall line and a corresponding surface plume development at the point of discharge. The diluted tailings are discharged on the floor of the ocean through a submerged pipeline with an outlet 170 m offshore at a depth of -12 m to -20 m (discharge depth to be confirmed during final design).

The outfall and seawater intake pipes are anchored to the seabed and suitably protected against wave action. The tailings mixture is discharged from the top of a steep slope (greater than 10%). Deposition of the tailings will occur on the sea bottom below 20 m depth in a sub-sea delta. The tailings will naturally classify so that coarser particles are deposited on steeper slopes near the end of the outfall. This process has been addressed by outlining the maximum tailings storage volumes for three particle size gradations with corresponding angles of repose. See attached Figure 3-16 for a depiction of the deposition. The figure shows the deposition zones based on approximate composition of tailings and angles of repose. The figure also presents the ultimate storage volume in areal extent and years based solely on statics and bottom configurations. It is, therefore, a minimum (or worst case) storage capacity. A calculated storage capacity for approximately 40 years of production is available for the coarsest fractions (medium sand) 50 years for the medium fraction (fine sand), and more than 130 years within the 140 m isobath for the fines (silt).

COST ESTIMATES AND CONSTRUCTION SCHEDULE
Capital Costs for Submarine Tailings Disposal

The capital cost estimate includes engineering, purchasing, and construction plus a 15% contingency. The following capital costs summary is based on 1990 U.S. dollars. The major cost item in foreign currency is the high density polyethylene pipe and corresponding freight from North America which represents some 40% of the total capital cost.

Summary of Capital Costs for Submarine Tailings Disposal System
Direct Cost U.S. $
Rio Locumba Intake Structure 560,000
Overland Pipeline Section A to B (5 km) 2,047,610
Overland Pipeline Section B to C (15 km) 5,474,100
Overland Pipeline Section C to D (5 km) 1,733,400
Nearshore Drop Box 150,000
Deaeration/Mixtank 500,000
Marine Outfall Pipeline 596,440
Mob-Demob and Support Facilities 600.000
Total Direct Cost 11,661,550
Engineering Cost 10% (Engineering, Procurement, Const. Mgmt.) 1,666,155
Contingency 15% 1,924,156
Grand Total 14,751,861
Summary of Annual Operating Costs for Submarine Tailings Disposal System
Item U.S. $
Rio Locumba Headworks 100,000
Gravity Pipeline (25 km) 200,000
Submarine Operation and Monitoring 100,000
Material Replacement 100.000
Total 500,000

Annual cost is estimated at $500,000 or 1.5 cents per tonne of tailings.

Capital costs for Temporary Marine Tailings Disposal

Short term remediation for the existing marine tailings disposal consists of piping the tailings from the Rio Locumba bridge to the surf zone some 1.2 km downstream. This short term measure is to control meandering of the channel to protect the pasture lands that have developed on the deposited tailings along the original shoreline. The proposed measure consists of a headworks near the bridge at an elevation of 5 m and a 42" HDPE pipe some 1,200 m long extending to the shoreline. The estimated capital cost for this short term measure is as follows:

Capital Costs for Improving Existing Marine Tailings Disposal
Capital Costs U.S. $
Headworks 65,000
Diversion and Spillway 15,000
Tailings pipeline 350,000
Temporary facilities, etc. 45,000
Engineering Cost 10% 47,500
Contingency 15% 78.375
Total 600,875
Annual Operating Costs

Annual cost is estimated at $20,000.

Construction Schedule

The project schedule is 24 months from construction approval to commissioning the system. The following summary outlines the major items:

Detailed construction schedule PERT and GANT charts are provided in Section 4.0 of this report.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT

The evaluation of environmental consequences was based on two concerns: first, the possible effects of the accumulating tailings deposit directly on the benthic biological capacity of the deeper sea bed and indirectly on the shallow bottom regions along the Punta San Pablo coastline and second, the possible reduction in water column clarity and elevation in dissolved contaminant levels in the water column. The potential effects were quantified by combining the theoretical understanding of important underlying dynamical processes known to be operating with detailed observations characterizing oceanographic conditions off Punta San Pablo. One major oceanographic consideration in this coastal environment is the relatively shallow depth of the oxycline due to upwelling.

THE UNDERLYING DYNAMICS

Understanding of the submarine transport and deposition of non-buoyant turbidity currents has been enhanced significantly in recent years through fundamental investigations of existing submarine tailings disposal operations. These efforts have enabled the development and calibration of a comprehensive sedimentation model that incorporates all perceived and important processes associated not only with the flow dynamics of the turbidity current but also with secondary redistribution mechanisms such as critical slope failure. As with all numerical models, certain simplifying assumptions were necessary in the implementation of the sedimentation model so as to make it mathematically and computationally manageable. Nevertheless, the approach was successfully calibrated against deposition data for Island Copper Mine, a large (60,000 tonne/day) and long-running (about 20 years) submarine discharge operation in British Columbia, Canada. For these reasons, this sedimentation model was made a central component of the environmental impact assessment of the Punta San Pablo submarine disposal option.

The sedimentation model was adapted to predict the bottom depositional pattern and the depositional fate of tailings with properties similar to those of the slurry presently being discharged at Playa Inglesa. In those cases where data required for model calibration specific to the Playa Inglesa slurry were not available, parameter values for the Island Copper operation were adopted without modification.

In addition, the subsequent dispersion of the tailings fraction predicted by the sedimentation model to remain in suspension was estimated using known relationships between ocean current characteristics and water mass mixing properties. This enabled the calculation of the dilution of a water column contaminant with distance from the outfall and thus the associated incremental increases in contaminant concentrations.

OBSERVATIONS

Although pertinent data for the Punta San Pablo area were collected in the past, it was necessary to supplement these in order to adequately support the modeling and theory based component of the environmental assessment. This was accomplished through two oceanographic study trips (August and October, 1990) that centered around the deployment and recovery of a number of current meter moorings. The ocean current and related data that these moorings provided were necessary to refine the picture of transport and mixing patterns off Punta San Pablo. The time-series of ocean currents were further supplemented through a number of current drifter buoys deployed in October, 1990 and subsequently tracked via satellite navigation. These ancillary data helped put the mooring data in a refined 3-dimensional perspective.

Water column properties such as density, optical clarity, particulate levels and dissolved oxygen concentrations were also measured during the field trips using a combination of automatic profiling and discrete water sample collection and laboratory analysis. As well, benthic invertebrate sampling was undertaken both to characterize the properties of the existing sediments and to gauge the biological productivity of the seabed.

A nearshore bathymetry survey was undertaken using high resolution acoustic soundings and satellite navigation to improve the resolution of the known nearshore bottom topography. These data were used both in the engineering design phase of the study and to provide the information on bottom slopes needed for modeling sediment deposition.

CONCLUSIONS

In terms of engineering design, it is feasible to divert the tailings from the Rio Locumba at an elevation of 134 m, to build a reliable pipeline system that will transport the tailings by gravity to Punta San Pablo, and to discharge the tailings on the sea floor through a submarine deaeration tank and outfall system at a depth of 12 m in an area of sufficient capacity to accommodate over 20 years of tailings at a production rate of 90,000 tonnes per day.

The disposal system as designed will cost approximately $14.8 million and the project will require approximately 24 months to complete. The system proposed has been operating successfully in Canada for over 20 years and more recently at a number of other sites in the world.

Of the 600 million tonnes of tailings resulting from 20 years of discharge, about 95% will be deposited at greater than 40 m depth. The remaining 5% of the tailings will be deposited in the 20 to 40 m depth. The biological productivity in the sphere below 30 m is extremely low due to the low dissolved oxygen levels (i.e., <0.50 mg/L) during periods of upwelling. The oxycline measured during the 1990 oceanographic surveys was observed to be at the 20 m depth.

The settling properties of the <10 um fraction of the tailings is such that the ultimate fate of this material is difficult to predict. Nevertheless, even on the assumption that all the <10um fraction of the tailings remains suspended in the water column, both a mass balance calculation and an independent and more detailed estimate based on dilution theory and measured ocean currents off Punta San Pablo indicate that the resulting concentration in suspended solids would be of the same order of magnitude as present background levels.

Submarine tailings disposal at a depth of 12 m off Punta San Pablo would be a significant environmental improvement over the existing marine discharge off the Rio Locumba. The environmental impacts from physical and chemical effects of the tailings would be negligible.

(return to Coastal & Island Mines)

Castilla, J.C., M. Sanchez and O. Mena. 1977. Estudios Ecologicos en la Zona Costera Afectada por Contaminacion del Northern Breeze. I. Introduccion General y Comunidades de Playas de Arenas. Medio Ambiente 2 (2): 53-64. Abstract in English. BOX: 10.

Abstract:

The paper shows the results of an ecological survey of a stretch of Chilean sandy beaches affected by an oil spillage caused by the Liberian merchant ship "Northern Breeze" which went aground in Farellones de Quintero, Chile (32 degrees 42' S. Lat.; 71 degrees 31' 7" W. Long.) in September 15, 1975.

It was informed that at the time of the study, October 4 - 7 1975, about 200 tons of petroleum had been already spilled from the "Northern Breeze" These affected a coastal stretch of approximately 46 Km (Bahia Quintero - Bahia Papudo), of which about one half corresponded to sandy beaches and one half to rocky shores. The study shows that, at this time, about 7.1 tons of petroleum had been already deposited along the 23 Km of sandy beaches.

Gas chromatographic analyses showed that the petroleum found on this coastal stretch corresponded to that spilled by the Liberian merchant ship.

Sandy beach invertebrate macro-fauna studies showed that the main changes in the sites most severely damaged were:

  1. Changes in the typical - vertical zonation patterns of some invertebrates;
  2. Lowered specific diversity;
  3. Probable lethal effect on the smaller individuals of the most typical invertebrates (i.e. Emerita analoga).

Several marine birds were found dead on the sandy beaches studied; nevertheless, the precise cause could not be determined.

The need for basic ecological studies on these Chilean ecosystems is emphasised.

(return to Coastal & Island Mines)

Santelices, B. and J.C. Castilla. 1977. Estudios Ecologicos en la Zona Costera Afectada por Contaminacion del Northern Breeze. III. Informe de danos Ecologicos y Destruccion de Recursos. Medio Ambiente 2 (2): 84-91. Abstract in English. BOX: 10.

Abstract:

The present report is an evaluation of the marine resource destruction due to oil spillage from the Liberian merchant ship "Northern Breeze" in Central Chile. About 6% the intertidal surface was covered by oil. The endangered area extended for about 46 Km. half of which corresponds to sandy shores, while the other half are rocky shores. The volume of economically important macro-algas, macro- invertebrates and non economically important macro-algae in the endangered rocky area were 1,270, 64, 8 and 26.88 ton (dry weight) respectively. A destruction of 6% of these recources means losses of about US$ 14,000 for the economically important algae alone. The economic importance of the other two types of organisms (invertebrates and macro-algae) cannot be evaluated at present, due to the imperfect knowledge of trophic-relations in the chilean shores. The fishes and shellfishes extracted from the endangered area in 1975 were equivalent to US$ 440,000, supporting a labor force of 478 fishermen, their families and dependents. All of these resources were jeopardized by the oil spillage.

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Vermeer, K., Castilla, J.C. and P.M. Whitehead. 1984. Trace Metals in the Marine Bird Food Chain Down-Stream the El Salvador Copper Mine, Chile. Manuscript submitted for publication and letter of review by Dr.Ellis. BOX: 10.

Abstract:

Trace metals in a marine bird food chain were investigated in the Chanaral area, downstream of the El Salvador copper mine, Chile. Silt, algae and marine invertebrates showed a decreasing residue gradient for arsenic, copper, iron, lead, titanium and vanadium from the tailings discharge site to the edge of the visible tailing deposits. Cadmium was found in high levels in marine organisms at some control sites. Observed metal levels in birds, except cadmium, were thought to be close to background levels and may reflect the presence of little contaminated prey for birds to feed upon in the tailing deposit area. Cadmium levels of some concern (40-90 ppm) were observed in Whimbrels, Numenius hudsonicus and in in mole crabs, Emerita analoga (5-6 ppm). It is suggested that the cadmium pathway should be further investigated in the whimbrel food chain.

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abstracts for 4.3 Southeast Asia

Brown, B.E. and M.C. Holley. 1982. Metal Levels Associated with Tin Dredging and Smelting and Their Effect Upon Intertidal Reef Flats at Ko Phuket, Thailand. Coral Reefs (1982) 1: 131-137. BOX: 11.

Summary:

Reef flats in the vicinity of tin dredging and smelting activities around the Laem Pan Wah peninsula, Phuket, and been quantitatively surveyed. The diversity of corals on all intertidal reefs was low (~l0 genera), the dominant genera being Porites, Montipora, Acropora and Platygyra. Two basic types of reef can be discerned, one dominated by Porites lutea and faviid species and the other by Montipora ramosa and Acropora aspera, reef type apparently being governed by the degree of exposure to water movement. Other natural factors affecting coral cover included freshwater run off, considerable sedimentation, and aerial exposure for 2-3 h each day. Heavy metal concentrations in invertebrate species such as the oyster Saccostrea, the bivalve Isognomon, and in the alga Padina reflected elevated metal levels at all sites when compared with controls (Figs. 8 and 9). In particular, levels of metals were considerably elevated in molluscs taken from the reef below the tin smelter. Interestingly, dead coral cover on this reef, although high, was not significantly different from values observed on reefs several kilometres away from the smelter, which were not apparently under the influence of such increased metal loads (Fig.2).

No elevation in metal concentrations in coral tissue or skeleton was evident at any site. It would appear, then, that these intertidal coral species are not obviously affected by the levels of metals discharged at the smelter site.

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Bussarawich, S., A. Nateewathana and J. Hylleberg. 1984. Distribution of Marine Benthic Amphipods Off Phuket Island, with Emphasis on Tin Mining and a Model of Species- Individual Relationships. Phuket Marine Biological Center Research Bulletin No. 32. 21pp., In same folder with Boonprakob, Wium-Andersen and Limpsaichol. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Grain size distribution of sediments, species composition, distribution and density of 30 species of amphipods were studied along the west coast of Phuket Island, the Andaman Sea, southern Thailand. Bimonthly bottom samples were obtained during one year with a 0.1 m2 Smith McIntyre grab at 15 stations, ranging in depth from 10-30 m.

A modification of traditional sieving and searching procedures yielded 2-3 times higher densities of amphipods per unit area. Contrary to previous findings, amphipods were prominent members of the offshore benthic communities.

The distribution of the amphipods is discussed in relation to concentrations of silt-clay, heterogeneity of sediments, and other groups of benthos at the 15 stations. It is concluded that amphipods are good indicator organisms with respect to silt-clay conditions of the sea bed.

A model is proposed for the relationship between total density of species and total density of individuals per station. The model is based on a truncate normal curve distribution and divided into four areas of amphipod occurrence termed inadequate, suboptimal, acceptable, and optimal. Lines of demarcation of these four areas is based on a division of the density of individuals into geometric classes.

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Gayman, W. 1983. An Investigation of Turbidity Control Methods for use on Tin Dredges Operating off the West Coast of Thailand. United Nations Environment Programme. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok, Thailand. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The dredging of tin from shallow sea floor areas off the west coast of Thailand creates employment for a substantial number of miners, and results in the payment of impressive royalties to the Thai government. However, because of environmental problems caused by the dredging and strong protests by various citizens group, tourist industry officials, and others, the Thai government has during the last few years prohibited mining in two offshore mining concessions in the Phuket area. In addition, mining has been at least temporarily prohibited off Karon beach.

Clearly, it is in the interest of the government and most of the local population to find a compromise solution which would allow the offshore mining to continue without the unacceptable environmental degradation which has occurred elsewhere in the Phuket area as a result of both onshore and offshore mining of tin. Accordingly, hopes have been expressed that some simple, proven technique for turbidity control might be imported from some highly developed nation where extensive research has been carried out on environmental problems created by dredging.

At least two highly effective approaches to turbidity control have been used in the United States, Western Europe and Japan; both involve the long distance transport of dredging wastes. For a variety of reasons, it is believed that these approaches probably are not applicable to the Thai tin dredges. Such techniques are not new. They were developed for navigational dredging carried out by hydraulic (suction) dredges; all of the large and efficient mining dredges working off west Phuket are bucket ladder dredges. The turbidity control approaches used in the U.S. and elsewhere are probably too costly to be considered by the Thai tin dredgers. Finally, some of the methods used overseas may not be workable in the Thai coastal waters because of substantial environmental differences.

Nevertheless, some of the findings from the 10-year U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Dredged Material Research Programme (DMRP) appear to be sufficiently promising to form the basis for an experimental dredging research and turbidity control programme which should be carried out in Thai coastal waters by the Thai tin mining industry and interested government offices.

Theoretical studies, laboratory tests, and field experiments carried out under the DMRP suggest that the following inexpensive approaches to turbidity control show sufficient promise to warrant testing in the local environment where the Thai tin dredges are working.

  1. Underwater discharge chutes or pipes
  2. Diffusers located on or close to the sea floor
  3. Silt curtains

These devices have not been adequately field tested, at least not in environments similar to those in which the offshore tin miners hope to operate. For this reason, and because several important environmental parameters in the area of the offshore concessions are not adequately known, it is not presently practical to predict the effectiveness of the various approaches proposed for turbidity control. If the effectiveness of any turbidity device cannot be predicted, then it is believed the use of such a device cannot be recommended, except on an experimental basis.

For this reason, a long term (multi-year) experimental turbidity control programme is recommended. This programme should include:

  1. The continued collection of whatever environmental/oceanographic data is necessary for:
    • the design and monitoring of turbidity control system, and
    • the prediction of effectiveness of various control systems that have been proposed or constructed.
  2. The experimental testing of a wide variety of relatively low cost turbidity control approaches, systems, devices or structures, in order to determine their ability to survive in the marine environment, while mounted on or near an operating dredge, and
  3. The monitoring of the turbidity control modification described in (2) above, in order to determine their effectiveness in limiting turbidity.

Two environmental problems resulting from onshore and mangrove flat dredging were also briefly investigated. The possibility of environmental degradation of mangrove flat communities adjacent to the tin mining operations in Phang-nga Province is briefly discussed. The suspected degradation may be caused by increased turbidity, increased rates of sedimentation, and/or marked changes in hydrologic flows. Possible solutions to the problem are suggested. The excessive sedimentation in coastal plain stream channels in Ranong Province is described; this problem clearly results from onshore tin mining operations. Possible short, medium, and long term solutions are briefly discussed.

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Ichikawa, T. 1986. Particulate Organic Carbon in the Waters Off the Terengganu Coast. pp. 87-92. In: Matahari Expedition, 1985. Mohsinetal. (ed). 233pp., In same folder with Law and Shazili articles. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Particulate organic carbon in sea water was measured in samples collected in the coastal waters of the South China Sea during the cruise of R.V. Kagoshima-Maru (Matahari Expedition 85). The carbon concentrations at 13 stations changed from 40 to 162 ugC/l. The integrated amount if particulate organic carbon inthe water column (0-50 m) at each station was in the range 3.9 to 6.0 gC/m2.

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Law, A.T. and R.B. Yusof. 1986. Hydrocarbon Distribution in the South China Sea. pp. 93-100. In: Matahari Expedition, 1985. Mohsin et al.(ed). 233p., In same folder with Shazili and Ichikawa articles. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The total hydrocarbon contents in the water at various depths, and in the surface sediments of the South China Sea were detected in the water between Stations 1 and 16. The average mean values at 1 m, 10 m and 20 m water depths were 0.96 ppm, 0.99 ppm, and 0.98 ppm respectively. Much lower values were found between Stations 17 and 24; the average mean values at 1 m, 10 m and 20 m were 0.17ppm, 0.17 ppm, and 0.16 ppm respectively. High total hydrocarbon contents were also detected in the sediments as 6.43 - 1332.13 mg/kg dry sediment. The results indicate that the Matahari Expedition study area was polluted with hydrocarbons.

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Limpsaichol, P. and T. Poopetch. 1984. The Effect of Dumping Suspended Solids at Sea on Chlorophyll a Concentrations and Primary Production Values. Phuket Marine Biological Center Research Bulletin No. 33. 15pp., In same folder with Boonprakob, Wium-Andersen and Bussarawich. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The hydrodynamics of a plume of suspended solids, produced from the offshore dredging operations in Bang Tao region, is related to patterns of tidal flow. This relationship exists up to 5 km downstream of the dumping. The distribution of suspended solids in the water column is stratified into three layers, a high concentration of solids being found in the upper 5 m of water, and in the layer above the substrate, with a lower concentration of solids in the layer between. The presence of suspended solids in the water column reduces the transmittance of light energy at depth. The finer particles absorb light and also cause considerable scattering. Light attenuation occurs at all wavelengths but is critical in the shorter wavelength range (400-550 nm) which containing high energy used by photosynthetic organisms. This effect leads to a reduction in chlorophyll a concentration and hence a decrease in primary production particularly in the light sensitive nanophytoplankton (size < 30 nm) fraction. The macrophytoplankton (size > 30 nm) fraction does not respond as rapidly as nanophytoplankton does.

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Mahmud, A.A. 1988. Protection of Malaysia's Marine Environment: Challenges and Opportunities for the Petroleum Industry. From a Seminar on the Marine Environment: Challenges and Opportunities 31st March - 2nd April, 1988. 25pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

lthough marine awareness has increased significantly and some progress achieved in recent years much remains to be done to better protect and manage Malaysia's marine heritage, in particular, in the South China Sea and the Straits of Malacca. The situation is dynamic; presently it is not so much oil pollution but rather siltation and sedimentation as a result of the degradation of the terrestrial ecosystem, discharge of untreated or partially treated domestic wastes and industrial effluents which are creating the most severe stress on our aquatic resources and the marine environment. Whilst the records show that the oil industry in this country has generally behaved responsibly, it cannot be complacent or take the attitude that it is the "other guys" who are causing the problem. The potential threat to the marine environment from the oil industry sector remains.

Fast neglect has probably already caused some irreparable damage. Presently, there are still many gaps in the battle against marine pollution, including information and knowledge gaps. Malaysia needs to review its agenda periodically and develop its own unique strategies for cost-effective efforts. The policies and programmes should be developed with clear "market segments" or target groups in mind. The present institutional set-up with specialized functions useful for other governmental purposes is often illogical for effective marine protection and management. There is still insufficient indigenous technical, research and managerial expertise with a maritime focus. Public concern for the marine environment is relatively recent: therefore, many opportunities to innovate exists. A more integrated, clearly focused and practical strategy is required.

The oil companies operating here which are Contractors to PETRONAS need to play their role in this total national strategy. They should not be inward-looking or take a narrow view-point because PETRONAS as a national oil corporation cannot afford to take this posture.

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Shazili, N.A.M., M.L. Husain and R. Yaacob. 1986. Heavy Metal Content of Sediments in the South China Sea. pp. 113-116. In: Matahari Expedition,1985. Mohsin et al.(ed). 233pp., In same folder with Law and Ichikawa articles. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Sediment samples were collected from 21 stations in the South China Sea offshore from Terengganu and analysed for cadmium, copper, nickel, lead and zinc. The range of concentrations of metals were 1.30-5.57 ug/g for cadmium, 2.85-8.1 ug/g for copper, 8.5-26.5 ug/g for nickel, 15.5 - 29.5 ug/g for lead and 22.7 - 49.2 ug/g for zinc. The levels found in thepresent study are similar to data from other marine locations.

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Valencia, M.J. ND. Malaysia and Extended Maritime Jurisdiction: The International Issues. No Source. 35pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Malaysia has extended its jurisdiction over marine resources and activities on its continental shelf and in a 200 nm Exclusive Economic Zone. As a result, Malaysia faces many international marine resource management issues including: boundary resolution, particularly in areas of petroleum and fisheries potential; management of migratory and shared fisheries stocks; access for foreign fishermen; protection from transnational oil spill; control of ship generated pollution; access for foreign scientific research; and maritime defense strategies. Malaysia's neighbors and extraregional powers each have national interests in the marine sphere vis-a-vis Malaysia. With extended maritime jurisdiction, Malaysia faces great opportunities as well as challenges for national development and international cooperation. This paper describes the challenges. The next step is to assess for each of the potential issues, Malaysia's options and their implications.

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Wium-Andersen, G. 1977. Marine Nerita Species from Phuket Island and their Chromosome Numbers (Gastropoda: Neritidae). Phuket Marine Biological Center Research Bulletin No. 15. 9pp., In Same folder with Boonprakob, Bussarawich and Limpsaichol. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Male specimens of 10 different marine Nerita species, nearly all collected on Phuket Island in south Thailand were all observed to have a chromosome number of n=12, eleven bivalents and one heterochromatic univalent in the first meiotic division. It is suggested that this univalent represents a sex chromosome with XO in males and XX in females.

A guide to the identification of the marine Nerita species from the southwest coast of Thailand is included.

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Yassin, A.A. 1988. Marine Environmental Management in the Upstream of the Malaysian Oil and Gas Industry: Old and New Challenges. From a Seminar on the Marine Environment: Challenges and Opportunities 31st March - 2nd April, 1988. 10pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Although marine awareness has increased significantly and some progress achieved in recent years much remains to be done to better protect and manage Malaysia's marine heritage, in particular, in the South China Sea and the Straits of Malacca. The situation is dynamic; presently it is not so much oil pollution but rather siltation and sedimentation as a result of the degradation of the terrestrial ecosystem, discharge of untreated or partially treated domestic wastes and industrial effluents which are creating the most severe stress on our aquatic resources and the marine environment. Whilst the records show that the oil industry in this country has generally behaved responsibly, it cannot be complacent or take the attitude that it is the "other guys" who are causing the problem. The potential threat to the marine environment from the oil industry sector remains.

Fast neglect has probably already caused some irreparable damage. Presently, there are still many gaps in the battle against marine pollution, including information and knowledge gaps. Malaysia needs to review its agenda periodically and develop its own unique strategies for cost-effective efforts. The policies and programmes should be developed with clear "market segments" or target groups in mind. The present institutional set-up with specialized functions useful for other governmental purposes is often illogical for effective marine protection and management. There is still insufficient indigenous technical, research and managerial expertise with a maritime focus. Public concern for the marine environment is relatively recent: therefore, many opportunities to innovate exists. A more integrated, clearly focused and practical strategy is required.

The oil companies operating here which are Contractors to PETRONAS need to play their role in this total national strategy. They should not be inward-looking or take a narrow view-point because PETRONAS as a national oil corporation cannot afford to take this posture.

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Parulekar, A.H., Z.A. Ansari and B.S. Ingole. 1985. Effect of Mining Activities on the Clam Fisheries and Bottom Fauna of Goa Estuaries. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci), Vol. 95, No. 3, June 1986. pp. 325-339. BOX 11.

Abstract:

Comparison of two clam beds and associated benthic fauna, in Mandovi and Cumbarjua canal estuarine system of Goa, severely affected by massive inputs of mining rejects, revealed that, in less than ten years (1972-73 to 1982-83), high biotic variability induced by increasing environmental stress has caused irreversible ecosystem instability. Reduced dissolved oxygen concentration; high suspended solids and blanketing of bottom deposits by mining rejects, has resulted in more than 70% reduction in clam production; near extinction of resident fauna and the appearance of a low diversity bottom fauna, comprising of tolerant but vagrant species. Ever increasing entry of mining rejects, which has reduced the healthy and highly productive estuarine environment of 1972-73, into an impoverished biotope, in less than 10 years, unless prevented will result in the total extinction of estuarine life in the near future.

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abstracts for 4.4 British Columbia

Amax of Canada Limited. 1981. Kitsault Mine: Environmental Monitoring Program (AATDR, PE-4335). Annual Report Volume 1: Discussion. 86pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

This report fulfills the requirements for an Annual Report to Environment Canada and the BC Ministry of Environment pursuant to the Alice Arm Tailings Deposit Regulations (AATDP) and BC Pollution Control Permit No. PE-4335. All required environmental data collected between May 1 and December 31, 1981 is included. This period relates to the startup and shakedown phase of Kitsault operations.

Volume 1 of this report contains a review and discussion of the data.

Volume 2 is a display of the data and a description of the methods and techniques used in this monitoring program.

Select highlights of this report include the following:

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Amax of Canada Limited. 1982. Kitsault Mine: Environmental Monitoring Program (AATDR, PE-4335). Annual Report Volume 1: Discussion. 82pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

This report fulfills the requirements for an Annual Report to Environment Canada and the BC Ministry of Environment pursuant to the Alice Arm Tailings Deposit Regulations (AATDR) and BC Pollution Control Permit No. PE-4335. All required environmental data collected between January 1 and December 31, 1982 are included.

Volume I of this report contains a review and discussion of the data.

Volume II is a display of the data and a description of the methods and techniques used in this monitoring program.

Select highlights of this report include the following:

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Anderson, E.P. and D.L. Mackas. 1986. Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Amolybdenum Mine Tailing on Marine Zooplankton: Mortality, Respiration, Feeding and Swimming Behavior in Calanus marshallae, Metridia pacifica and Euphausia pacifica. Marine Environmental Research 19: 131-155. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

We report the laboratory survival, respiration, feeding and swimming behavior of zooplankton exposed to suspended tailing from a molybdenum mine that discharged into the Observatory Inlet fjord system in northern British Columbia. Test species were the copepods Calanus marshallae and Metridia pacifica and the euphausiid Euphausia pacifica. In the inlet, the discharge produced a turbid plume at intermediate depth and a near bottom density flow down-slope into the deepest part of the fjord. The concentration of particles in the intermediate plume was always less than 15 mg/liter at 0.5 km from the outfall and declined with increasing distance.

In toxicity experiments the lowest whole tailing solids concentration that produced a clear decrease in median survival time was 560 mg/liter for Euphausia pacifica at 112 h and Calanus marshallae at 464 h. All three test species ingested tailing particles. In several cases the presence of low tailing concentrations increased survival over that in filtered seawater. Oxygen consumption was affected at relatively low tailing concentration. The pattern of respiratory responses varied with species and nutritional condition. The swimming behavior of Calanus marshallae could be partitioned into five stereotypic patterns, of which one, 'circles', was associated with continuous feeding. 'Circles' was induced in Calanus when starved animals were fed a culture of the diatom Thalassiosira fluviatilis. 'Circles' was neither induced nor extinguished by the presence of tailing.

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Burd, B.J. and R.O. Brinkhurst. 1990. Benthic Infaunal Survey of Alice Armand Hastings Arm, British Columbia - October, 1989. Canadian Data Report of Hydrography and Ocean Sciences No. 82. 23pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

In October 1989, a benthic invertebrate faunal survey was conducted in Alice Arm and Hastings Arm, British Columbia. In this report, we include raw data from that survey and preliminary statistical analyses of this dataset. This represents the fourth in a series of similar benthic surveys conducted in this area since 1982.

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Ellis, D.V. 1980. Initial Environmental Evaluation for the Queen Charlotte Sound and Hecate Strait Areas. Benthos Volume I- Text Appendices 1, 2, 4, 5. BOX: 11.

Summary:

Very substantial, but qualitative, information is available on the distribution of marine benthic species inhabiting northern British Columbia, but only the molluscs, echinoderms, the common polychaetes and the larger crustacea can be regarded as nearly taxonomically stable and hence potentially routinely identifiable with accuracy. For quantitative appraisal of benthic ecosystems, a considerable number of species probably remains to be separated as distinct forms, some of which may be important in ecosystem processes. Laboratories in BC engaged in routine identifications do not as yet have inter-laboratory calibrations as quality control procedures.

Quantitative information on benthic components of marine ecosystems is available from southern British Columbia for shallow water and may be applicable with appropriate modifications to northern BC Some stock and yield information is available for a variety of shellfish species in northern BC, but there has been little overlap with information on benthos as feed stocks for shellfish (or groundfish). Materials and energy budget approximations may be quite inaccurate.

A protocol has been developed in this report to compartmentalise benthic contributions to marine ecosystem dynamics for northern BC This is based on feeding strategies, modified by variables of depth and habitat. Recently detailed dynamics of a few trophic chains as revealed for other areas should be applicable with modification to northern BC

These include the kelp—sea-urchin (abalone)—sea-otter (lobster) chain; and the amphipod—salmon (juvenile) chain. There is energy budget information from a shallow embayment in the San Juan Islands (latitude 48 degrees 30'N), and for a common intertidal barnacle species (latitude 49 degrees 20'N).

Productive and hence environmentally sensitive areas occur throughout shallow water in northern BC including crab-clam-shrimp grounds on sediment beds, and abalone-urchin-prawn-octopus grounds on rocky bottom.

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Ellis, D.V. 1981. The Amax Molybdenum Mine at Kitsault, BC and its Marine Tailings Disposal System. Report on the Public Meetings at Prince Rupert May 27-29, 1981. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

This report contains documentation on the AMAX tailing disposal system as presented before a government review panel, and also documentation of a shut-down incident during start-up brought about by a minor escape of fine tailing from the descending plume. It includes suggestions on future avoidance of such start-up incidents.

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Ellis, D.V. and A.A. Jones. 1975. Alice Arm Project, Review of Benthic Infauna Data. A Report to Dr. J.L. Littlepage, University of Victoria. 28pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The 1974 benthic infaunal surveys demonstrated the species associations, stocks and biomasses in three shallow water areas, one of which (Area 1) is within a 1/4 nautical mile of the previous tailing discharge point to the sea. Area 1 could not be distinguished from the other two shallow water areas on a basis of stock and biomass, but by species associational analysis could be shown as characterised by certain species. An analysis of species numerical dominance indicated reduced numbers of dominants (3) compared to the next nearest shallow area (Area 2 - 7 dominants) and this slight difference is the only character found which may indicate an existing reduction of ecosystem quality derived from previous mine activity.

The 1974 surveys also explored the species associations, stocks and biomasses of the deep fjord infauna in both Alice and Hastings Arm. The faunas were essentially similar, with some additional characterising species in Alice Arm. There was no evidence for effects of previous mine operations.

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Jewett, S.C., N.A. Sloan and D.A. Somerton. 1985. Size at Sexual Maturity and Fecundity of the Fjord-Dwelling Golden King Crab Lithodes aequispina Benedict from Northern British Columbia. Journal of Crustacean Biology 5 (3): 377-385. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Size at maturity of fjord-dwelling golden king crabs, Lithodes aequispina, from northern British Columbia is 114 mm carapace length (CL) for males, based on chela allometry, and 105.5 mm CL for females, based on the presence of "eggs" (embryos) or empty egg cases on the pleopod setae. Females carried up to 27,000 "eggs." Fecundity (F), measured soon after egg extrusion, increases with carapace length according to: F = 18,760 + 294 CL. Embryo mortality, from egg extrusion until the appearance of embryonic eyes, decreases from 13% for 110 mm CL females to 8% for 140 mm females. Mean length of external "eggs" immediately before hatching is 2.4 mm. Based on the size limit at maturity and estimates of growth rate, a minimum commercial size limit of 163 mm CL (=181 mm carapace width, including lateral spines) would protect males for three years after maturity is reached.

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Littlepage, J.L. 1974. Oceanographic and Marine Biological Surveys in Alice Arm and Hastings Arm, BC: Summary, Analysis and Conclusions 1974 Alice Arm Program. 46pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The 1974 program collected and reviewed basic oceanographic and environmental data in the Kitsault BC region. Data confirmed typical inlet hydrographic structure and estuarine circulation. No anoxic conditions were found. Surface currents are tidally induced and shallow. Phytoplankton standing crop is low and increases seaward. Productivity is confined to the top 10 meters. No abnormal metal levels were found in nearby fresh water or sea water. Sediment analysis indicated only visual and chemical means could be used to separate mill tailings from natural sediments. Tailings distribution in Alice Arm is outlined. Benthic infauna in Alice Arm and a control inlet are similar. There is no evidence of previous mine operations on infauna. Epifauna between 40 and 400 m was sparse in both Alice Arm and the control inlet. Heavy metals were abnormally high in fish and shellfish. Origin of the metals could not be ascertained with certainty. Nearby Lime Creek does not support a salmon run due to natural conditions. Several nearby rivers support large salmon runs. A number of conclusions concerning oceanographic and environmental features are given.

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Macdonald, R.W. and M.C. O'Brien. 1995. The Transport of Tailings in Alice Arm, British Columbia. Draft Report. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Mine tailings from an open pit molybdenum mine were discharged at 50 m depth to Alice Arm, BC, Canada during 1981-1982. We report here the results of a sediment trap survey to determine the scale of transport of suspended tailings within the fjord. Tailings clearly affect the particle fluxes in the deeper water of Alice Arm out to a distance of about 12-14 km as demonstrated by increased particle fluxes and enrichment of these particles in heavy metals (Cd, Zn, Pb). However, the disposal strategy appears to have been effective in trapping suspended tailings within Alice Arm; there was no evidence of tailings entering surface water or escaping the inlet. Three months after the mine closed, particle fluxes in Alice Arm dropped to natural or near-natural levels. Natural inorganic particle delivery is also recorded in the traps as seasonal pulses from rivers draining into the head and sides of the arm.

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Mackas, D.L. and E.P. Anderson. 1986. Small-Scale Zooplankton Community Variability in a Northern British Columbia Fjord System. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 22: 115-142. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

We have used multivariate classification, ordination, and discriminant function analyses to describe the small-scale spatial pattern of zooplankton community composition in a northern British Columbia fjord system. Finely ground tailings from a molybdenum mine were discharged into one branch of the fjord (Alice Arm) during a 17-month span which included our two sampling periods (August 1981 and June 1982). Our study had two major objectives. The first was to learn whether or not the zooplankton community was strongly altered in the vicinity of the tailings discharge, and the second was to characterize the intensity and dominant spatial grain scale of 'normal' community variability in the remainder of the deep inlet system.

Zooplankton were collected by water column integrating oblique net hauls. The statistical analyses examined relative and absolute changes in the contribution of individual species to the local zooplankton community. Within each time period, the range of spatial variability was small in comparison both to the between-time period (probably seasonal) differences within the inlet, and to the range of spatial variability observed by identical analysis methods in open continental shelf waters to the south. However, despite this small overall community variance, we found a reasonably consistent regional partitioning of the inlet; the samples most similar in composition tended to be those from the same or adjoining locations. Sites near the turbid heads of the branching inlet (including those near the tailings discharge) had higher concentrations of Euphausia pacifica and other large non-copepod zooplankton, and relatively low concentrations of the copepod Neocalanus plumchrus. The magnitude of the between region-differences was small and did not appear to be increasing with time; we therefore conclude that the impact of tailings discharge on zooplankton community structure was relatively minor. The distance over which neighbouring samples show significant compositional correlation is smaller in the inlet than in open coastal waters previously studied; we interpret this as due largely to the absence of meso-scale horizontal turbulent eddies within the inlet.

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Odhiambo, B.K. 1995. Sediment Accumulation, Trasport and the Fate of Mine Tailings Disposed of in a Coastal Fjord, Alice arm, BC MSc Thesis, University of Nairobi. 95pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

This thesis evaluated mine tailings dispersal and sediment trapping efflciency in the Alice Arm of northern British Columbia. Eight gravity cores collected from sites in Alice Arm and Upper Observatory Inlet were measured for 210-Pb, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Al, Mn, Fe and Ba to determine the sediment accumulation rates and establish the transport and fate of mine tailings.

The 210-Pb derived Sediment accumulation rates ranged from 0.15 to 0.59 g cm-2yr-1 in Upper Observatory Inlet, while in Alice Arm the accumulation rates ranged from 1.31 g cm-2yr-1 in the lower sections ofthe Arm (near the sill) to above 2 g cm-2yr-1 in the upper sections of the Arm. The significantly lower sedimentation rates in Observatory Inlet, outside the Alice Arm sill, suggest that most sediments are trapped within Alice Arm, including mine tailings.

Elevated Zn, Pb, and Cd concentrations in the cores taken from Alice Arm indicate the influence of Amax/Kitsault and BC Moly tailings from the head of Alice Arm. Ba, Mn and Fe elevations at the bottom of ST-3 and ST-4 cores (located near head); and a maximum of Ba concentration around 1952 (31 cm) at core ST-2 (near the sill) is associated with the former Dolly Varden mines tailings. The post-1900 increase of Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd in Upper Observatory Inlet sediments closely matches the Anyox mine and smelting operation period. Both the 210-Pb derived sediment accumulation rates and the sediment metal concentrations indicates that Alice Arm is an effective trap for most of the materials supplied to it by the runoff system and the tailing materials.

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Parsons, T.R. and T.A. Kessler. 1986. An Ecosystem Model Analysis of the Effect of Mine Tailings on the Euphotic Zone of Apelagic Ecosystem. ActaOcean. Sinica 5 (3): 425-436. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

A computer analysis was performed on experimental results obtained when mine talings were added to seawater. The Mixed Upper-Layer Ecotrophic Simulation (MULES) model was tested by changing the extinction coefficient and the abundance of heterotrophic zooflagellates. Increasing the extinction coefficient resulted in a delay of phytoplankton growth, an increase in zooplankton standing stock and better growth of autotrophic flagellates compared with diatoms. Zooflagellates in the ecosystem influence the growth of zooplankton; secondary production by zooplankton was markedly depressed at low levels of zooflagellates. These results are believed to be of general significance for the diagnosis of suspended sediment effects on planktonic ecosystems.

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Parsons, T.R. and T.A. Kessler. 1986. Computer Model Analysis of Pelagic Ecosystems in Estuarine Waters. NATO ASI Series Vol. G7: 161 181. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

A computer model of the principal biological components in a planktonic estuarine ecosystem have been described. The model in used to analyse the effect of organic additions, changes in extinction coefficient, initial nitrate concentrations and zooflagellates on the production of phytoplankton and zooplankton. The impact of these components on the model illustrate the effect of small phase shifts in the coupling between primary and secondary production. Collectively these minor changes perform a "phasing" function which greatly alters the effect of the main "forcing" functions (e.g. light, initial nutrient concentrations) on the planktonic ecosystems.

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Parsons, T.R., P. Thompson, W. Yong, C.M. Lalli, H. Shumin and X. Huaishu.1986. The Effect of Mine Tailings on the Production of Plankton. ActaOcean. Sinica 5 (3): 417-423. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Mine tailings at levels of ca 30 and 300 ppm were added to two plankton communities contained in 60 ton Controlled Experimental Ecosystems (CEE); a third CEE was used as a control. The mine tailings caused (1) a delay in the primary productivity and chlorophyll a maxima; (2) a shift in the size spectrum of primary producers towards autotrophic flagellates compared with diatoms in the control; (3) a suppression of heterotrophic microflagellates; and (4) an increased production of zooplankton compared with the control. Zooplankton were observed to have consumed tailings but no changes were observed in the structure of the zooplankton community as a result of tailings additions.

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Sloan, N.A. 1985. Life History Characteristics of Fjord-Dwelling Golden King Crabs Lithodes aequispina. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 22: 219-228. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

In an interconnecting system of silled, narrow, steep-walled fjords in northern British Columbia (Canada) 3800 golden king crab Lithodes aequispina Benedict and 184 red king crab Paralithodes camtschatica (Tilesius) were taken between 51 to 569 m in 3 samples over a 10 mo period. Larval retention within the most isolated fjords is suggested as an explanation for the relatively high numbers of L. aequispina and the relatively high (41.0%) infection level of the crabs by the castrating rhizocephalan barnacle parasite Briarosaccus callosus Boschma. Life history characteristics of king crab species in fjords are related to depth. The normally continental shelf- and slope-dwelling L. aequispina were found significantly deeper than the characteristically intertidal to continental shelf- dwelling P. camtschatica. Depth stratification of L. aequispina was related to reproductive state among unparasitized crabs and parasitism by B. callosus of the others. Reproduction of unparasitized L. aequispina was continuous and aseasonal. Coexisting female P. camtschatica displayed strong synchronous reproduction characteristic of the species elsewhere. I propose that juvenile female L. aequispina recruit in the shallows (usually <100 m). Females mate and extrude eggs at usually <150 m and incubate eggs slightly deeper (~150 to 250 m). Spawned out (matted setae) females dominate the unparasitized female population at > 200 m and comprise the largest proportion of unparasitized females overall. This last phase may exceed a year in length and is probably followed by upward migration to the level (50 to 150 m) at which the less migratory unparasitized adult males are most abundant. Parasitized male and female L. aequispina behave like matted setae females and are the largest component of the total crab population from 200 to 400 m.

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Sloan, N.A. and S.M.C. Robinson. 1985. The Effect of Trap Soak Time on Yields of the Deep-Water Golden King Crab Lithodes aequispina Benedictina Northern British Columbia Fjord. Journal of Shellfish Research 5 (1): 21-23. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

In deep water (X = 320 m; range 185-402 m) fishing for fjord dwelling goden king crabs (Litodes aequispina) trap yields increased at a constant rate with soak time from 0 to 48 h. Between 48 and 96 h crab escape was significant. To delay trap saturation (reduction in catch rate with increasing catch), the possibility of curtailing crab escape by trap modifications is discussed. If crab escape can be curtailed, catch value can exceed the high cost of fishing these large, individually bouyed traps in deep water.

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Dobrocky SeaTech Ltd. 1973. Diver Inspection of the Seabottom, and Flora and Fauna Near the Jordan River Mines Tailings Discharge Pipe. Report to Jordan River Mines Ltd. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Inspection of the sea bottom near the Jordan River Mines tailings outfall was carried out during a period of clear water conditions resulting from mine shutdown in May and June, 1973. A previously detected mound of tailings at the site of the first pipe break (approximately 2300 feet from the pipeline base) was still present, standing 5 feet above the surrounding terrain. The horizontal extent of the mound was not determined. Marine flora and fauna appeared to be essentially unchanged from predischarge conditions.

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Dobrocky SeaTech Ltd. 1973. Water Quality and Heavy Metal Analyses: Jordan River. Data Report for the Fourth Quarterly Sampling Period Following Commencement of Regular Tailings Discharge May - July 1973. Report to Jordan River Mines Ltd. 94pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The results of a water quality and biological survey in the vicinity of the Jordan River Mines tailings discharge pipe are reported. The data were gathered after 10 to 12 months of continuous mine operations.

Water quality data for the receiving area around the pipeline indicated normal physical conditions and nutrient levels. Dissolved metals were not detected. Turbidity due to tailings discharge was confined to a very narrow, near-shore band. Beach sediment samples gave no indication of increasing proportions of fine particles, although visual observations of the beach near the pipeline suggest the contrary. This discrepancy is thought to be due to a deficiency in the sediment sampling procedure. Copper content of the beach sediments at and near Desolation Point (East of the outfall) increased markedly over previous values. Intertidal shellfish, however, showed no significant change in metal content. Samples of subtidal sediments showed only slight changes in metal content. Zinc levels were the highest of the metals detected in samples of crabs (representing subtidal shellfish). Values for all metals showed no significant change from previous data. Analysis of samples of mine effluent showed only slight departure from the permitted pH values. Metal levels and suspended solids remained within permitted limits.

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Dobrocky SeaTech Ltd. 1973. Water Quality and Heavy Metal Analyses: Jordan River. Data Report for the Fifth Quarterly Sampling Period, July October, 1973. Report to Jordan River Mines Limited. 28pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Results of monitoring are presented for the period July through October, 1973. Effluent parameter values (with the exception of pH) remained within the limits established by the Letter of Transmittal dated June 22, 1973. Dissolved metals were not detected in samples of ocean water taken within 100 yards of the effluent discharge point. Suspended solids content of the receiving area was not markedly influenced by mine effluent discharge. The turbidity field due to dispersing effluent extended along the beaches from near Point No Point Westwards beyond China Beach.

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Dobrocky SeaTech Ltd. 1974. Water Quality and Heavy Metal Analyses: Jordan River. Data Report for the Sixth Quarterly Sampling Period, November 1973 to January 1974. Report to Jordan River Mines Limited. 71pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The results of a water quality and biological survey in the vicinity of the Jordan River Mines tailings discharge outfall are reported. The data represent the sixth quarterly sampling, carried out between November, 1973 and January, 1974.

Dissolved metal content of effluent samples was undetectable. Total metal content varied considerably in the three samples tested. The total and suspended solids contents contravened Pollution Control Branch specifications in the effluent sample for November, 1973. The pH value of the January effluent sample contravened the Pollution Control Branch specifications. Dissolved metals and pH of ocean water in the receiving area were normal. A mine-derived input of suspended solids was noted in the receiving area, superimposed upon high background levels, detected at the control site. The dispersing turbidity field stayed close to the beaches, and was evenly distributed in the water column. Beach sediment samples indicated high and increasing values for copper, zinc and chromium content in the beaches near the mine outfall. Subtidal sediment samples from the intended discharge point showed high zinc, and low copper and chromium contents. Similar samples from a control location showed high zinc and copper, and low chromium content. Littleneck clams near the mine outfall carried higher tissue content of copper and chromium than did a control population. Zinc levels were similar in both cases. A single sampling of the California mussel suggested higher tissue contents of copper and zinc near the outfall than at a control location. No specimens of the bay mussel were found near the mine outfall. No tailings mound was found at the site of the original offshore discharge. Diver observations in the same area also gave no indication of the presence of tailings. A tailings mound was noted around the present near-shore discharge point. Extreme turbidity precluded any underwater observations of the mound by divers. A rich population of invertebrates was noted by divers in the area of the intended tailings discharge.

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Dobrocky SeaTech Ltd. 1974. Water Quality and Heavy Metal Analyses: Jordan River. Data Report for the Eighth Quarterly Sampling Period May to July, 1974. Report to Jordan River Mines Limited. 25pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The results of the eighth quarterly monitoring period are presented, based upon sampling carried out from May, 1974, through July, 1974. The mine effluent sample for May 1974, showed high values for dissolved copper and zinc (in contravention of the Pollution Control Branch limitations) and for dissolved solids. Conversely, the value for suspended solids in that sample was low Total metal values were lower than previously-obtained results. The effluent sample for June 1974, yielded no detectable dissolved metals, whilst values for total metals remained within the ranges of previous data. The total solids content, and the pH of the June sample contravened the Pollution Control Branch limitations. The turbidity field formed by the dispersing tailings was confined to Outfall Bay (site of the discharge) and to a narrow band along the shoreline westwards to China Beach, and eastwards towards Point No Point. No data were available for ocean water quality as the samples were lost in storage.

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Ellis, D.V. 1974. Jordan River Mine Monitoring and Surveillance Program. Special Report on the Biological Program, January to May, 1974. Dobrocky SeaTech Report to Jordan River Mines Ltd. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Sampling in January and March, 1974, confirmed an elevated copper content in littleneck clams near the tailings discharge at Jordan River relative to a control site in Sooke Harbour. These levels did not continue to increase through the survey period. Zinc and chromium concentrations in the same clams were not different from control values. Edible crabs taken near the tailings discharge showed no difference in copper, zinc and chromium contents when compared with a control population. The rocky intertidal area adjacent to the tailings discharge supported the types and variety or macro-organisms normally expected in that geographical area. Some recommendations are presented for future monitoring following change over to the offshore discharge system.

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Ellis, D.V. 1974. Water Quality and Heavy Metal Analyses: Jordan River. Data Report for the Seventh Quarterly Sampling Period February 1974 to May 1974. Dobrocky SeaTech Report to Jordan River Mines Ltd. 44pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

This report presents the results of the seventh quarterly sampling in the monitoring program for the Jordan River Mines tailings discharge. Sampling was carried out between February and May, 1974.

Dissolved metal content of effluent samples for March and April, 1974, were generally undetectable, whilst total metal content varied considerably in the samples tested. Total and suspended solids content in both samples were within the permitted levels, but both pH values exceeded the Discharge Permit specifications. Dissolved metals content and pH of ocean water samples from the receiving area were normal. A mine-derived input of suspended solids was noted in the receiving area. A turbidity field extended along the shore from China Beach to Point No Point, and for approximately one-half mile offshore. Surf conditions at the outfall caused some resuspension of settled tailings. Such re-suspension may persist for some time after the new outfall is operational.

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Ellis, D.V. 1977. Effectiveness of Existing Pollution Controls as Shown by Four Case-histories; and Recommendations for Future Control. Submission to the Public Inquiry into Pollution Control Objectives for the Mining, Mine-Milling and Smelting Industries. 23pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Four case histories of mine wastes discharged to the sea are reviewed. These are Anaconda Britannia, Jordan River, Island Copper and Climax Molybdenum. Existing provincial pollution controls on effluents and outfalls appear effective in preventing persisting metal contamination of marine organisms at least under short-term discharges of 2-5 years. Other environmental disturbances are caused by mine wastes but there is some evidence for reversal or natural rehabilitation over periods from a few days to a few years.

It is recommended that the Inquiry consider the following points in appraising the existing objectives and suggested changes.

  1. Obtaining adequate scientific justification for changes to the existing Objectives.
  2. Reducing overlapping pollution control authority.
  3. Establishing single monitoring agencies in multiple discharge receiving areas.
  4. Clarifying need for monitoring programs during and following accidents to a discharge system.
  5. Establishment of rehabilitative capacity at underwater disposal sites.
  6. Publication of environmental assessment guidelines.
  7. Public dissemination of pollution data.

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Ellis, D.V. and J.L. Littlepage. 1972. Water Quality, Sediment Description and Heavy Metal Analyses: Jordan River. Data Report for the Pre-Discharge Period to April 1972. Dobrocky SeaTech Report to Jordan River Mines Ltd. 54pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The results of a water quality and biological survey in the vicinity of the Jordan River Mines tailings discharge pipe are reported. These data were gathered in the period prior to discharge of tailings effluent, and represent baseline values against which subsequent results may be evaluated.

Water quality data for the receiving area around the pipeline position indicated normal physical conditions and nutrient levels. Analysis of water samples from this area failed to detect cyanide or dissolved heavy metals. A current survey in the month of February indicated that there was no onshore surface drift from the vicinity of the pipeline terminus. The beach sediment in the vicinity of the pipeline was described by particle size distribution as predominantly well sorted fine sand, with an area of poorly sorted gravel included. The organic content of the beach sediments was very low (<2.5%). Analysis for trace metals revealed great variation in copper content between three beach stations, and less variation in the other metals tested. Similar variations were noted in trace metal content of samples of beach shellfish A recommendation for future beach shellfish sampling is included. Subtidal sediments taken near the pipeline terminus were described as medium to very fine sand, with very low (<1.5%) organic content. The copper content of these sediments varied markedly between stations, whilst there was less variation in the other trace metals. Trace metal content of edible crabs (representative of subtidal shellfish) indicated relatively high values for zinc (compared with beach shellfish) and relatively low values for copper. A survey by biologist/diver documented the flora and fauna in the receiving area near the discharge pipe. The sand areas were relatively barren, with occasional patches of large clams. Rocky outcrops in the sand were inhabited by the flora and fauna usually found in moderate (1-3 knots) current areas on the southwest coast of Vancouver Island. A species list of macro-organisms is included.

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Ellis, D.V. and J.L. Littlepage. 1973. First Annual Report of the Monitoring and Surveillance Programme at Jordan River Mine. Data from February 1972 to July 1973. Dobrocky SeaTech Report to Jordan River Mines Ltd. 77pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Jordan River Mine has discharged an effluent generally within the restrictions of its permit. Recognisable ecosystem effects have been water turbidity, increased sediment metal levels, and levels of copper, zinc and chromium in stock of littleneck clams, Protothaca staminea near the outfall.

Two breaks in the outfall created problems of nearshore turbidity and tailings deposition not anticipated prior to discharge.

Data to date indicate that a redesigned monitoring program concentrating on turbidity profiling, and metal levels in animal stocks should now be implemented.

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Ellis, D.V. and J.L. Littlepage. 1973. Water Quality and Heavy Metal Analyses: Jordan River. Data Report for the Third Quarterly Sampling Period Following Commencement of Regular Tailings Discharge. Dobrocky SeaTech Report to Jordan River Mines Ltd. 30pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

Water quality surveys in April 1973, in the vicinity of the Jordan River Mines tailings outfall showed that metal content and pH remained unchanged from predischarge levels. Suspended solids levels were slightly higher than levels noted in October 1972. Transmissometer profiles showed a turbidity field held inshore against the beach, and extending at least 9000 feet to East and West of the outfall. The field extended 2500 to 3000 feet offshore at the outfall site, but offshore extent diminished with increasing distance from the outfall. Samples of mine effluent did not exceed permitted values of any parameter tested, with the exception of the pH value of the December sample.

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Ellis, D.V. and J.L. Littlepage. 1973. Water Quality, Sediment Description and Heavy Metal Analyses: Jordan River. Data Report for Second Quarterly Sampling Period After Commencement of Regular Tailings Discharge. Dobrocky SeaTech Report to Jordan River Mines Ltd.70pp. BOX: 11.

Abstract:

The results of a water quality and biological survey in the vicinity of the Jordan River Mines tailings discharge pipe are reported. These data were gathered after six months of continuous mine operations and tailings discharge had occurred. Comparison with data gathered in the predischarge period indicate some of the effects of tailings discharge upon the receiving environment.

Water quality data for the receiving area around the pipeline indicated normal physical conditions and nutrient levels. Analysis of water samples from this area failed to detect cyanide or dissolved heavy metals. The turbidity field due to tailings dispersal was located and plotted on two days. An area of high - turbidity water near to shore was detected, apparently caused by a break in the outfall pipe which permitted tailings discharge to occur close to the shore. The beach sediment in the vicinity of the pipeline was described by particle size distribution as well sorted, fine or very fine sand. There was no difference between these data and those from the pre discharge survey. The organic content of the beach sediments near the pipeline was very low (<1.0%), as was recorded in the pre-discharge survey. Analysis of heavy metals in beach sediment revealed that copper was present in the greatest concentration. Great variation in copper content between samples was noted, with less variation in the other metals tested. Comparison of these data with corresponding pre discharge data was not feasible. Additional sediment samples taken between Point No Point and China Beach indicated no apparent increase in silt-clay fraction of sediments which might be attributed to tailings depositions on the beaches. Zinc levels were the highest of the metals detected in intertidal shellfish tissues. Copper content was lower than pre-discharge data, whilst levels of other metals were unchanged. Samples of subtidal sediments taken near to, and to the West of the pipeline terminus were described by particle size distrubution as well sorted, very fine sands. The sample nearest the pipeline showed a great increase in silt-clay fraction over the predischarge data, an indication of tailings depositions. This indication was strengthened by the increased copper, zinc and (to a lesser extent) cadmium content of the sample as compared with predischarge data for the sediments near the pipeline. Organic Content of the sample was zero, a reduction from predischarge levels.

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Rescan Environmental Services Ltd. 1988. Preliminary Environmental Overview of Proposed Ferrochromium Production Facility Bamberton, BC Report Prepared for Ministry of Regional Development Victoria, BC See also Uvic Archives Acc No. 91-020, Port Hardy Ferrochromium Review Panel fonds. BOX: 12.

Executive Summary:

On October 26, 1988, Rescan Environmental Services Ltd. of Vancouver was contracted to assist the British Columbia Ministry of Regional Development and the British Columbia Ministry of Environment in providing a preliminary environmental overview of a low carbon ferrochromium production facility proposed for Bamberton, BC The key assignments were to characterize any proposed discharges to air, water or land and to provide a preliminary assessment of their managements and their potential impacts on the receiving environment. In addition Rescan was requested to describe all feedstocks into and products from the process and to identify potential discharges and hazards that might occur during the handling of these materials.

The Sherwood low carbon ferrochromium plant proposed by Wooding New Jersey comprises an innovative, leading edge, metallurgical plant to produce approximately 25,000 tonnes per year of ferrochromium alloy plus 20,000 tonnes per year of mineral fibre by-product. Reduction and refining of chromite (FeO Cr2 03) feedstock is to be conducted in two spherical, vacuum tight electrically heated vessels. These totally enclosed vessels are claimed to have thermal efficiencies of 93% which will be nearly twice as efficient as existing furnaces. The use of vacuum metallurgy will not only result in a ferrochromium product of highest quality but it will also dramatically reduce emissions to the atmosphere.

Feedstocks

Feedstocks of approximately 60,000 tonnes per year of chromite plus ~13,000 tonnes per year of reductant (low sulphur coal or coke) plus ~13,000 tonnes per year of clean silica flux will be delivered to a wharf at the Bamberton site by boat or by barge. Use of best available technology should ensure against fugitive dusts or accidental spillage at the wharf site. Feedstocks will be transported by truck or conveyor up to the plant site, at approximately 135 metre elevation, and stored in a separate feed preparation building. The chromite and silica are both hard, dense, insoluble minerals and pose no threat of leaching contaminants to the environment. Anthracite coal or coke reductant will have to be handled with greater care to ensure no release during transport. Spillage or dusting might pose a nuisance impact or esthetic impact but no serious environmental threat. All feedstocks should be kept moist during off loading and transport to prevent dusting.

Main Plant and Preparation Buildings

The main plant and preparation buildings will be located behind a well-treed ridge which will obscure their view from Saanich Inlet. They will also be unseen by vehicular traffic using the Malahat Highway.

Seawater

Seawater drawn from Saanich Inlet, at a rate of up to 10,000 Imperial gallons per minute, will be used only for heat exchange cooling before being returned to the inlet. The seawater will not contact any of the processed material and will be uncontaminated. The discharge will be engineered to minimize any impact of the increased (up to 5 or 10 degrees C) temperature of the discharge.

Fresh Water

No substantial fresh water discharges are believed to be necessary by Wooding New Jersey. Rescan foresees the possible need for periodic, small volume discharges of "bleed" streams from internal recycle circuits. These infrequent bleeds will probably have to be treated to ensure that all possible contaminants are removed prior to discharge to a receiving environment. A sewage treatment plant will be installed to accommodate the 100-200 employees at work on the site at any one time.

Emissions to the Atmosphere

Emissions to the atmosphere are designed to be sufficiently innocuous that they will exhausted via a longitudinal plenum at the roof crest of the main plant building. No major stacks are planned. Apart from inert nitrogen gas, the main component of the exhausted gas will be carbon dioxide CO2.

General Conclusions

Information currently available to Rescan indicates that the proposed Sherwood ferrochromium plant should not impact significantly on either the air or water quality of the receiving environment in the Bamberton area. Wooding New Jersey also has indicated that the plant will not emit a visible plume due to air emissions. While major buildings will be hidden from view, all buildings are to be constructed and clad in a manner to blend into the well treed hillside.

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Deniseger, J., L.J. Erickson, A. Austin, M. Roch and M.J.R. Clark. 1988. The Effects of Decreasing Heavy Metal Concentrations on the Biota of Buttle Lake; Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Ministry of Environment and Parks. BOX: 12.

Abstract:

Since 1966, a copper-lead-zinc mine operated by Westmin Resources Limited has been a source of heavy metal input into Buttle Lake. Metal levels increased in the lake, peaking in 1980/81; thereafter improved treatment and collection systems at the mine site have resulted in steadily decreasing metal levels throughout the lake system. The increase in metal concentrations in the lake water was accompanied by increased metal concentrations in salmonid muscle and liver tissues, by elevated levels of hepatic metallothionein, and by declines in both species diversity and population for phytoplankton, periphyton and zooplankton. However, recovery of the biota of Buttle Lake with decrease in metal concentrations has not followed a simple reversal of the earlier trends.

While metal levels in rainbow trout muscle tissue have improved significantly, copper and cadmium liver tissue levels remain significantly higher than for the control lakes. Hepatic metallothionein levels in rainbow trout have declined steadily from a maximum of 269 + 23 nmoles/g in 1981 to a low of 64 + 22 nmoles/g in 1985, which is similar to the control lake.

Interspecies comparison of muscle and liver tissue levels both for Buttle Lake and for uncontaminated British Columbia lakes found that rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), cutthroat trout (Salmo clarkii clarkii) and Dolly Varden char (Salvelinus malma) respond differently to metals in the environment. It is apparent that trends in rainbow trout data should not be generalized to include all three groups.

As metal concentrations decreased, the phytoplankton community began to change so that beginning in 1983 and continuing well into 1985, a continuous phytoplankton bloom consisting of a virtual monoculture of Rhizosolenia eriensis was present throughout the lake. Accompanying the bloom was a scarcity of zooplankton. However, as levels of R. eriensis peaked in 1985, species of zooplankton and phytoplankton gradually began to reappear so that diversity and species number are approaching historical levels.

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Ellis, D.V. 1984. Problems in Metal Bioaccumulation Arising from Mining Industry Disposal of Tailings to the Sea. Preprint of Paper Presented at the 11th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, Vancouver, BC, Canada. November 13-15, 1984. 13pp. BOX: 12.

Abstract:

After more than a decade of field investigation, there is no evidence from trace metals monitoring at the many marine discharging mine sites that bioaccumulation can and does spill over into trophic level biomagnification, and thereby put biological resources and human health at risk. Only a few mine sites have such high bioaccumulation levels that they provide adequate field sites for testing the resource significance of laboratory based toxicology research. The case history results demonstrate a need for site-specific interdisciplinary studies of trace metal bioavailability, biolocation at inter- and intracellular levels, correlated pathologies, and resource impact.

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Levings, C.D. 1976. River Diversion and Intertidal Benthos at the Squamish River Delta, British Columbia. 193-202pp. Reprint from: Fresh Water on the Sea. Edited by S. Skreslet, R. Leinebo, J.B.L. Matthews and E.Sakshaug. The Association of Norwegian, Oceanographers, Oslo 1976. BOX: 12.

Abstract:

River diversion and industrial development on a delta at the head of a fjord in British Columbia have been associated with changes in intertidal benthic communities Construction of a training wall (dyke) has accentuated flows and scouring on the western sector of the delta, and has temporarily stabilized sedimentary habitats in the middle sector. Communities furthest from the river (eastern sector) are more marine in character, but a marine community has been established in the "shadow" of the training wall. The seasonal dominance of marine, freshwater, and estuarine plankton and drift organisms in the channels of the delta was related to freshwater runoff and salinity changes. A gammarid amphipod (Anisogammarus confervicolus) was very abundant under cover material (sedge rhizomes, Fucus) and biomass values were related to geological stability. This species appears to have ecological characteristics which allow it to rapidly colonize newly-formed optimum habitats.

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Mellor, C. 1994. Application of the Ecological Risk Assessment Process to the Britannia Beach Copper Mine Site. Student Report. Department of Biology, University of Victoria. 44pp. BOX: 12.

Abstract:

A screening level assessment was conducted on paper using data collected in previous years by several different sources. It was determined that the major areas of concern were Jane Basin, Britannia Beach townsite, and Britannia offshore center and south. The potential contaminants of concern (PCOCs) were defined as copper, zinc and the pH level. Receptors of concern (ROCs) were chosen to be trout, salmon, raccoon and kingfisher. The major exposure pathways were through ingestion of contaminated aquatic organisms and sediment, drinking of contaminated water, and inhabiting a low pH environment. Equations were presented for use in a quantitative exposure assessment. Values for ROCs and their exposure pathways were not derived, as essential information on the species was unavailable at the time. The ecological risk assessment process is feasible for application at Britannia Beach Mine site.

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Munro, R. 1986. A Study of Recolonization of Benthic Fauna in Stabilized Tailing Beds at Britannia Beach, Howe Sound, BC Work Term Report for Biology Co-op, University of Victoria. 23pp. BOX: 12.

Abstract:

Samples of benthic invertebrates were collected at Britannia Beach, Howe Sound to determine the effects of mine tailings on the benthic community approximately 12 years after discharge from the Anaconda Mine ceased. It was a follow-up study to a survey done in February 1986 of the area from which initial observation indicated a supressed rate of recolonization of the tailings by the benthic fauna. Using the 0.1 m2 Van Veen grab replicate samples were taken at four stations. Two stations were located in heavy and light tailings at depths of 25m and l00m respectively. The other stations were reference sites and were located at depths of 25m and l00m also. The grabs were sieved through a 2.0mm screen placed on top of a 0.5mm screen. Only the organisms from the tailing stations were sorted into the following major groups, Polychaeta, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Echinodermata, Aplacophora, Arthropoda, and Nemertinea, identified to lowest taxonomic level possible and counted. The shallow station bears heavy and tightly compacted tailings and very little organics, while the deeper stations is made up of lighter tailings less tightly compacted and a thick layer of organic matter. The dominant taxa in both stations was the polychaetes with families Cirratulidae and Capitellidae being present in particularly high numbers. The bivalves, Axinopsida serricata and Macoma spp. were abundant in the lighter tailings but scarce in the heavier tailings. The echinoderms, especially the holothuroideans, were abundant in the shallow station but absent in the deeper station. The reference stations collections have yet to be studied.

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Erickson, L.J. and J.H. Deniseger. 1987. Impact Assessment of Acid Drainage from an Abandoned Copper Mine on Mt. Washington. Ministry of Environment & Parks. 67pp. BOX: 12.

Abstract:

Investigations of the effects of acid mine drainage from an abandoned copper mine on Mt. Washington, Vancouver Island, included water quality sampling, measurement of flows, biological surveys and fish bioassays. The north block of the mine site was found to be the principle source of acid mine drainage. Metal concentrations were found to peak during May snowmelt and after fall rainstorms; concentrations decreased downstream with increasing dilution. Copper concentrations sufficient to have impacts on aquatic life were found from Pyrrhotite Creek downstream through the Tsolum River during the spring peak. Impacts on the fisheries resource were shown, both fro acute toxicity and implied from reduced diversity of the aquatic insect community. Reclamation and abatement at the north block of the mine site is requisite to recovery of the Tsolum River below the confluence with Murex Creek.

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Hallam, R., R. Kussat and M. Jones. 1974. A Biological Assessment of Benson Lake Following Deep Lake Tailings Disposal. Environment Canada Surveillance Report EPS 5-PR-74-2. 16pp. BOX: 12.

Abstract:

Post mine operation conditions in Benson Lake were documented in November, 1973. Turbidity measurements showed a marked improvement in lake water clarity compared to levels recorded when the mine disposed of tailings in the lake. Total metal concentrations in lake water and fish tissue remained unchanged. Examination of the contents of trout stomachs indicated that their food supply was obtained from sources other than the lake bottom. Improvements in lake productivity and recolonization by benthic organisms is expected to take several years.

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Harding, L. and M. Thomas. 1987. Baseline Sediment and Tissue Trace Metals in Barkley Sound, Quatsino Sound, Surf Inlet and Laredo Sound, British Columbia. Environment Canada Regional Program Report 87-06. 137pp. BOX: 12.

Abstract:

Marine sediments and biota samples were collected during March 1984 in Barkley Sound, Quatsino Sound, Surf Inlet and Laredo Sound for trace metal analysis. The purpose of this study was to measure natural variation of these parameters in near shore coastal environments.

Considerable variation was found in several trace metals in sediments. Barkley Sound was noted for relatively higher levels of aluminum, cadmium, chromium, tin and zinc; Quatsino Sound for chromium, copper, magnesium, manganese, strontium, vanadium and titanium; Surf Inlet for arsenic, cadmium, and mercury; and Laredo for barium, mercury, and lead.

In biota, arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury and lead - the only trace metals analysed in detail - showed significant differences between areas, but were not correlated with sediment concentrations. In bottom fish, cadmium tended to be higher in liver than in muscle tissue, while mercury concentrated more in muscle tissue. Overall there was very little bioaccumulation, i.e., trace metal levels in tissues were generally not higher than metal levels in sediments. Some exceptions were noted for cadmium and mercury in sole species.

Species composition of trawls showed diverse and variable epibenthic communities at all stations.

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