abstracts for
5. Regional Collections

During 1986 and 1987, the Office of Puget Sound, U.S EPA Region 10, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Seattle District, and the Washington Departments of Ecology and Natural Resources undertook a joint effort to develop sediment quality values for Puget Sound. The goal of the project was to identify concentrations of chemicals in sediments that are expected (based on field evidence or theoretical predictions) to be associated with adverse biological effects. The specific objectives of the study were to compile synoptic biological and chemical data from Puget Sound, to evaluate techniques that could be used to develop chemical-specific sediment quality values and to evaluate the reliability (i.e. ability to correctly identify sites with known biological effects) or the values generated using different techniques. The study was completed in September 1986 and copies of the final report (Belier et al. 1986) were distributed nationally and in the Puget Sound region.

The 1986 report contains an evaluation of several different approaches to establishing sediment quality values and ranges of chemical values that can be applied in sediment management, but does not identify the specific methods or values that the agencies will adopt for regulation or how these numerical values should be modified for application in specific regulatory programs.

Based on the conclusions of the 1986 report, the agencies requested a more detailed evaluation of the use of the Apparent Effects Threshold (AET) approach in establishing sediment quality values. An AET is defined as the sediment concentration of a contaminant above which statistically significant (P<O.05) adverse effects for a particular biological indicator are always expected relative to appropriate reference conditions. AET are considered distinct from sediment quality values. AET are tools that can be used in sediment management. Sediment quality values, which may be based in part on AET, have yet to be adopted by Puget Sound agencies and, as a policy decision, may include safety factors or other modifications. This report does not address policy decisions for use of AET by agencies. It is recommended that the AET values not be applied outside Puget Sound without further evaluations.

The overall objective of this report is to further test the reliability of AET and potential resulting sediment quality values based on AET in predicting adverse biological effects and to provide more detailed analyses of the relationships between chemical concentrations and biological effects. Most of these evaluations were conducted as part of the 1988 recalculation and evaluation of Puget Sound AET presented in this report (Volume I). Other analyses conducted for the Puget Sound Dredged Disposal Analysis program are summarized in a separate volume (Barrick et al. 1988; Volume II).

The following six objectives were accomplished as tests of the reliability of AET:

1. Further test the predictive reliability of 1986 Puget Sound AET using new data sets for Eagle Harbor, Elliott Bay, and Everett Harbor
2. Evaluate the predictive reliability of Puget Sound AET after incorporation of these new data sets in the calculation of 1988 AET
3. Compare the predictive reliability of 1986 and 1988 Puget Sound AET using independent dredging data sets (only a limited comparison was possiblebecause of incomplete chemical or biological test results for most of these dredging studies)
4. Investigate the characteristics of and develop hypotheses for stations at which observed biological effects run counter to AET predictions
5. Test the influence of geographic location on AET reliability
6. Determine if a subset of chemicals in the sediment quality database accounts for all or nearly all of the predictive reliability of AET.

The following three additional objectives were accomplished by applying the sediment quality values database to Puget Sound data:

1. Investigate minimum data requirements to derive reliable AET
2. Identify potential problem areas by predicting biological effects in Puget Sound from chemical data
3. Evaluate the influence of different bioassay reference data sets on the development of AET.

Evaluations conducted for this PSEP study indicate that 1988 AET values are generally reliable predictors of adverse biological effects after recalculating the 1986 AET values by incorporating new data from Eagle Harbor, Elliott Bay, and Everett Harbor. Of the 201 benthic infauna stations and 281 amphipod bioassay stations evaluated for 13 Puget Sound embayments, approximately 85 percent (174 stations and 243 stations, respectively) are in accordance with the predictions of the 1988 AET values for these indicators (i.e., they do not exhibit adverse effects at chemical concentrations less than the AET values, and do exhibit adverse effects at chemical concentrations above the AET values). One or the other of these biological indicators is still in accordance with predictions of the respective AET values at 23 of the 28 (82 percent) stations at which an impact was not predicted and data for both benthic infauna and amphipod bioassays were available. Because the 1988 AET are based on data for all available nonimpacted stations, none of the 91 nonimpacted benthic stations or 177 nonimpacted amphipod bioassay stations were mispredicted.

1986 AET values (dry weight normalization) are less efficient but are of similar sensitivity to the 1988 AET (dry weight normalization) and so have somewhat lower overall reliability. The sensitivity of 1988 amphipod bioassay AET is actually slightly higher than that for 1986 AET, although AET have increased for many chemicals (e.g., PAH) This net increase in sensitivity rather than a decrease is explained by the following four factors:

1. Increasing an AET value does not necessarily mean that previously predicted stations will no longer be predicted, because the concentration of chemicals at such stations may still exceed the updated AET value. Alternatively, the impacted stations may still be predicted by AET for other chemicals that are also detected at elevated concentration at the station.
2. Implementation of consistent rules for treatment of anomalous biologicaland chemical data in developing the 1988 AET resulted in the lowering of AET values relative to corresponding 1986 AET for five chemicals used in predictions.
3. 1988 AET are available for some chemicals that either were not used in predictions by 1986 AET (e.g., antimony, chromium) or were not analyzed for in the surveys used to establish 1986 AET (e.g., new data are available for resin acids and chlorinated phenols in the Everett Harbor survey and selected tentatively identified compounds detected in the Everett Harbor and Elliot Bay surveys).
4. Some 1986 AET are "greater than" values (i.e., preliminary AET that require further confirmation) for which concentrations of the chemical at all impacted stations are less than the highest concentration at a nonimpacted station in the surveys used to establish 1986 AET. These preliminary AET are not used in determining sensitivity. After addition of new survey data, 1988 AET for some of these chemicals became defined AET because at least one impacted station in the new surveys exceeded the highest concentration at a nonimpacted station. Such AET are used in determining sensitivity.

Of the 201 benthic infauna stations and 287 amphipod bioassay stations evaluated, approximately 75 percent (157 stations and 213 stations, respectively) are in accordance with the predictions of the 1986 AET values for these indicators. AET for the oyster larvae and Microtox bioassays have not been updated because new data using comparable bioassay protocols were not available (data are only available for Commencement Bay for these two indicators). Approximately 96 percent of both the existing 5O-station oyster larvae database and the 50-station Microtox database are in accordance with the predictions of the 1986 values for these indicators.

TOC-normalized AET did not appear to offer an advantage in predictive success over dry weight-normalized AET. Specifically, for 988 AET calculated for amphipod and benthic infauna indicators, use of TOC-normalized AET for nonionic organic compounds and dry weight-normalized AET for the remaining chemicals (metals and ionizable organic compounds) yielded approximately equivalent reliability results when compared with predictions by dry weight-normalized AET for all chemicals. Different hypotheses are discussed in the report for why TOC-normalized AET may be no more predictive than dry-weight AET.Chemical and biological data for impacted stations that were not predicted as impacted by AET were reviewed to assess possible reasons for the incorrect predictions including the following:

• The indicated adverse biological effect resulted from factors other than toxic chemical exposures (e.g., physical disruption, grain size distribution)
• Unidentified chemicals accounted for the sediment toxicity
• High chemical detection limits precluded an assessment of whether the AET was exceeded
• The biological effect was incorrectly classified as statistically significant.

Physical characteristics (e.g., grain size, habitat exposure) and high detection limits (for which AET predictions are not made), or unanalyzed chemicals are the most likely factors accounting for the 29 amphipod and 24 benthic infauna stations that were not in accordance with predictions based on AET values. High detection limits for at least one chemical at almost all of these stations prevented a complete comparison to AET values. A relatively high percentage (>75 percent) of fine-grained sediment was found at 55 percent of the incorrectly predicted amphipod bioassay stations (81 percent of the incorrectly predicted stations in the EIGHTBAY survey); such conditions are less favorable for the test organisms. A significant depression in benthic infaunal abundance was found at one of the two fine-grained sediments at which data for both biological indicators were available. These potential physical factors increase the uncertainty with which adverse biological effects can be identified. However, for the existing database, the 1988 AET are efficient with respect to not predicting effects for stations at which grain size or related factors may dominate over toxic effects.

A relatively high percentage (>70 percent) of coarse-grained sediment was found at 64 percent of the incorrectly predicted benthic infauna stations and in some cases these samples were collected in areas of relatively high-wave intensity compared to reference conditions. Both conditions are expected to result in reduced abundances of organisms that may not have been adequately controlled for by comparisons to reference area samples. Significant mortality was observed in the amphipod bioassay at two of the eight coarse-grained sediment stations at which data for both biological indicators were available.

Detection limits, unmeasured chemicals. or unaccounted chemical interactions are important considerations at the five stations at which both significant amphipod mortality and significant depressions in abundance of benthic infauna occurred but no AET were exceeded. These stations are of concern because AET for both indicators failed to predict the observed effects and grain-size conditions were generally not considered to be a factor (these five stations constitute 3 percent of the 154 stations at which both amphipod bioassay and benthic infaunal data are available for comparisons). The five stations are from the PSEP Elliott Bay survey, and four of the five are located near Harbor Island in the lower Duwamish River, a federal Superfund site contaminated by a variety of organic and inorganic chemicals. The fifth station is located near Pier 91 in Elliott Bay, untested but potential tributyltin contamination from historical naval ship operations should be considered as a possible explanation for the substantial adverse effects observed at this station.

In general, there was little evidence to suggest that the reliability of AET was affected by geographic location. The 1988 AET are 100 percent efficient in predicting effects in areas of Puget Sound represented in the database (excluding chemically anomalous stations at which relatively high chemical concentrations but no adverse effects were observed). After including chemical anomalies in predictions, the 1988 amphipod AET are 88 percent efficient and the 1988 benthic infauna AET are 96 percent efficient for a total database of 295 and 205 stations, respectively. High and nearly identical sensitivity was observed for both amphipod bioassay and benthic infaunal abundance indicators in the Commencement Bay and Everett Harbor surveys conducted over two years apart in north and south Puget Sound. In general there were greater differences in sensitivity among individual surveys in the same location than among geographic areas. The lowest sensitivity (e.g., 17 percent for amphipod bioassay results in the EIGHTBAY study) was associated with surveys for which potential grain-size effects, high detection limits, or lack of data for all chemical classes were major factors.

From 60-100 percent sensitivity was observed in all geographic areas for which all chemical classes represented by AFT were analyzed in a survey (including tentatively identified organic compounds). In a separate test, AET were generated solely from upper Duwanish River stations sampled in two surveys and compared with a later independent survey in the same area as well as with data from Everett Harbor and Commencement Bay. High (100 percent) sensitivity and low (31-35 percent) efficiency was attained in each of these comparisons. Hence, there was no evidence of differences in reliability among geographic regions although the test results indicated that a sample size of 16 stations from one geographic area was too small or nonrepresentative of a range of contaminant conditions to generate efficient AET values.

Based on these results and further tests using random selection of stations from the entire database, it is recommended that the following strategy be used to develop reliable AET: 1) Collect chemical and biological effects data from preferably more than 50 stations; 2) Bias the positioning of stations to ensure sampling of a variety of contaminant sources (e.g., an urban environment impacted by multiple contaminant sources and preferably representative of the range of geographic areas to which the AFT will be applied) over a range of contaminant concentrations (preferably over at least one to two orders of magnitude); 3) Conduct chemical tests for a wide range of chemical classes and ensure that <100 ppb detection limits (lower if possible) are attained for organic compounds (metals detection limits do not appear to be a problem). In general, small numbers of randomly selected stations yield AET that are sensitive (>80-100 percent) but not highly efficient (40-60 percent).

The sensitivity of 1988 AET is attributable to several chemical classes. No one chemical or chemical class (e.g. PAH, metals, phenolic compounds) accounts for more than half of the sensitivity that is attained using AET for all chemicals. However a number of chemicals do not contribute to the sensitivity of the 1988 AET because they are infrequently detected or reported in Puget Sound (Table 14). In addition, several chemical variables do not appear to uniquely account for predicted impacts for either the amphipod bioassay or benthic infauna indicators, including standard conventional variables (TOC, TVS, sulfides, grain size, oil & grease), volatile organic compounds (except potentially trichloroethene in the Duwamish River), and several miscellaneous compounds (e.g., pentachlorophenol, resin acids, organic bases, dibenzofuran, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol). Routine analysis for volatile organic compounds may not be warranted based on these results, which would represent a cost savings because these compounds require separate analysis.

The chemical groups that contribute most substantially to the sensitivity of the 1988 AET for amphipod bioassay and benthic infauna indicators include PAH, metals (excluding beryllium, selenium, barium, and naturally occurring iron or manganese), phenols, phthalate esters (not necessarily the few phthalate esters that are common laboratory contaminants), chlorinated neutral compounds (e.g., chlorinated benzenes, butadienes, and PCBs), and tentatively identified compounds (including PAH-related compounds and miscellaneous oxygenated compounds). An evaluation of the incremental increase in sensitivity by adding these chemical groups (Figure 9) indicated that PAH and metals were the two most important for identifying impacts in the Puget Sound database. However, these groups are also two of the most commonly measured variables, which may bias the results against other Compound groups that have not been as widely measured at low detection limits (e.g., alkyl- and chlorinated phenols or chlorinated benzenes).

Finally, based on AET for the four available biological indicators (amphipod, oyster larvae, and Microtox bioassays, and benthic infaunal abundance), maps were prepared showing the location of predicted impacts in Puget Sound using most of the 334-station database. For ranking these stations, both the magnitude of AET exceedance and the number of AET exceedances are important in establishing a preponderance of evidence for predicting adverse biological effects. Comparison of the cumulative ratio of the concentration of each contaminant to its AET value was suggested as a possible way to rank these stations and conform to an additive model of chemical toxicity.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) annually collects and chemically analyzes sediment samples from sites located in coastal marine and estuarine environments throughout the United States as a part of the National Status and Trends (NS&T) Program. While the chemical data provide indications of the relative degrees of contamination among the sampling sites, they provide neither a measure of adverse biological effects nor an estimate of the potential for effects. Data derived from a wide variety of methods and approaches were assembled and evaluated to identify informal guidelines for use in evaluation of the NS&T Program sediment data. The data from three basic approaches to the establishment of effects-based criteria were evaluated: the equilibrium-partitioning approach, the spiked-sediment bioassay approach, and various methods of evaluating synoptically collected biological and chemical data in field surveys. The chemical concentrations observed or predicted by the different methods to be associated with biological effects were sorted, and the lower 10 percentile and median concentrations were identified along with an overall apparent effects threshold. The lower 10 percentile in the data was identified as an Effects Range-Low (BR-L) and the median was identified as an Effects Range-Median (ER-M). Note that these ER-L and ER-M values are not to be construed as NOAA standards or criteria. The ambient NS&T Program sediment data from sampling sites were compared with the respective BR-L and ER-M values for each analyte. The comparisons were used to rank sites with regard to the potential for adverse biological effects, assuming that the rates in which the average chemical concentrations exceeded the most ER-L and ER-M values would have the highest potential for effects. The rankings indicated that a sampling site located in the Hudson-Raritan estuary had the highest potential for effects, followed by a site located in Boston Harbor, a site located in western Long Island Sound, and a site located in the Oakland estuary of San Francisco Bay.

A. SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

The overall objective of this program is to assess potential effects of petroleum and petroleum-related operations on marine organisms indigenous to Alaskan waters. Several principal objectives were addressed by this research unit (OCSEAP RU 73) during the contract period. These were:

1. Determine the effects of crude petroleum (Prudhoe Bay and Cook Inlet) on the development of embryos and larvae of salmon, of a representative species of Alaskan flatfish, and of Osmeridae (capelin, smelt).
2. Continue studies on pathological effects resulting from long-term exposure of juvenile flatfish to sediments contaminated with petroleum.
3. (a) Determine if exposure to Cook Inlet crude oil (CICO)-contaminated sediment alters disease resistance in juvenile flatfish and in a representative Alaskan crustacean species and (b) conduct preliminary studies on the effect of petroleum/dispersant mixtures on disease resistance of juvenile salmon.
4. (a) Continue studies on the uptake of aromatic hydrocarbons by flatfish and (b) identify potentially damaging petroleum hydrocarbons and their oxidized products.
5. Determine the effects of CICO on the ability of salmon fry to avoid predation.
6. Determine the concentrations of specific hydrocarbons in water, sediment, and tissues of exposed organisms in order to relate the presence of these components to biological effects.

B. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS

The conclusions of this program are summarized according to disciplinary areas. Several aspects of the studies have been completed while others are continuing.

Behavior

Exposure of chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) fry to the saltwater soluble fraction (SWSF) of CICO at a concentration fo about 0.4 ppm for one week altered the behavior (reduced schooling, lethargy), but did not result in differential consumption of these fry by coho salmon (O. kitsutch) predators, in comparison to controls.

Chemistry

Benzo[a]pyrene (BP) was readily taken up from both diet and oiled sediment by pleuronectid fish. The release of metabolites of BP from tissues of the flatfish was much slower than that of naphthalene metabolites.

Benzo[a]pyrene was extensively metabolized by flatfish liver into reactive intermediates that bind to DNA. Binding of metabolites of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) to the genetic material, DNA, is a very important step in the everts leading to genetic damage and tumor formation. Thus, it is likely that BP, which is a minor component of petroleum, may accumulate in tissues of benthic organism to a significant level and may, on the basis of our findings that mutagenic intermediates were formed in vivo, initiate steps toward mutagenesis and neoplasia.

Pathology

Pathological Changes in Flatfish from Exposure to Oil-Contaminated Sediment

Experiments have been conducted during the past three years in which three species of flatfish, English sole (Parophrys vetulus), rock sole (Leoidopsetta bilineata), and starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus), were exposed to Prudhoe Bay crude oil (PBCO)-contaminated sediments for periods of 2 wk to 4 months. Initial concentrations of PBCO mixed with sediment ranged from 0.2 to 1.0% (v/v), and two basic types of sediment (sandy and silty) were employed. Release of petroleum hydrocarbons was more than 10-fold greater from the sandy-type sediment than from the silty-type. Also, the three flatfish species differed substantially in the amount of petroleum-derived aromatic hydrocarbons found in tissues. PBCO-related pathological effects were not observed in rock sole or starry flounder exposed to contaminated sediments for 1 and 2 months, respectively. Oil-exposed English sole were routinely observed to have reduced hemoglobin concentrations and lower hematocrits during the first month of exposure. Histopathological changes were seen in livers of all three species but they were frequently detected in control as well as oil-exposed individuals.

Changes observed in oiled sediment-exposed flatfish in these studies appear to be reversible and not directly life-threatening, although they may reflect damage that can reduce survival in natural environments.

Physiology

A substantial number (42%) of the eggs of chum salmon exposed to the SWSF of weathered PBCO throughout embryonic development died; however, the effect of oil exposure was even more manifest following hatching. Alevin mortality was observed (up to 82%) that was generally reflective of the total duration of exposure to oil as both embryos and alevins. Exposure of newly hatched alevins to the SWSF of weathered PBCO increased the mortality of fish at this developmental stage by more than 100%, compared to controls.

Two species of flatfish [sand sole (Psettichthys melanostictus) and English sole] eggs and larvae were exposed to fresh PBCO, weathered PBCO "mousse", and the SWSF of weathered PBCO. Fresh PBCO and the weathered "mousse" of PBCO layerod on the water surface generally induced high embryo mortality. Eggs exposed to the SWSF of weathered PBCO did not undergo extremely high mortality, but most larvae exhibited morphological abnormalities. Histological changes were also evident in oil-exposed larvae (disruption of olfactory cilia and abnormal epidermal cell mitochondria).

Exposure of surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) eggs to the SWSF of weathered CICO also resulted in reduced hatching success and there was evidence of necrosis in the eye and brain of some of the surviving larvae.

C. IMPLICATIONS WITH RESPECT TO OCS OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

Findings fron this program have clear implications with respect to petroleum effects on aquatic species and consequently to OCS oil and gas development. Most of the studies were designed as laboratory experiments with emphasis, as much as feasible on oil exposures of marine organisms in flowing-seawater tanks. Controlled studies with experimental designs of the types reported here are indispensible parts of a total program directed at understanding effects of petroleum on the marine environment. It is primarily through controlled experiments such as these that petroleum can, with a high degree of accuracy, be identified as causing specific effects. In addition, through these types of studies the relative susceptability or resistance of important species to petroleum components can be established, as can the precise nature of petroleum-induced abnormalities. The laboratory results can then be used to design directed field studies to formulate hypotheses for testing petroleum impacts on marine species and ecosystems, and as a basis for developing best estimates of petroleum impacts on the environment.

Implications of studies conducted in this period for each disciplinary area are presented below.

Behavior

Pink (0. gorbuscha) and chum salmon fry spend several months in coastal estuaries before going to sea and at this life stage they are extremely vulnerable to predation by other salmonid fishes. Predator-prey studies in progress are designed to determine if fry are affected by petroleum differentially from adult predators so that they suffer substantially increased predation. Increased predation would imply severe effects of this type could result from petroleum released into Alaskan nearshore areas at certain times of the year.

Chemistry

Pleuronectid fish were able to take up BP from oiled sediment and diet and convert it extensively into mutagenic and carcinogenic metabolites. The results also show that metabolites of BP were retained in tissues of flatfish over a much longer period than naphthalene and its metabolites. It is apparent, therefore, that although aromatic hydrocarbons having four or five rings are minor components of petroleum, they can be bioconcentrated in tissues of demersal organisms to levels potentially leading to the onset of deleterious biological effects. Studies conducted under OCSEAP have clearly demonstrated that aromatic hydrocarbons are extensively converted to a variety of oxidized products in the marine environment. Therefore, if tissues, water, and sediment samples are analysed for PAH alone, and not for the oxidized products, erroneous conclusions will be reached. The presence of PAH and their metabolites in edible tissues (e.g. muscle) can also have a serious impact on consumer acceptability of fish.

Pathology

Pathological Changes in Flatfish From Exposure to Oil-Contaminated Sediment

Laboratory sediment-associated PBCO exposures have thus far resulted in few clearly serious pathological effects in juvenile and adult flatfish of three arctic and subarctic species. Whether or not fish exposed to similarly contaminated sediments could under natural conditions successfully compete for food, reproduce, escape predators, and perform a number of other vital functions and activities is still not known.

Physiology

Fresh and weathered oil exposure would, based on these studies, result in high mortality of flatfish embryos and larvae. In addition, flatfish eggs exposed to fresh and weathered PBCO were frequently ruptured. This was unexpected and made it difficult to evaluate precise numbers of eggs lost in the laboratory experiments. This effect may be of importance in field sampling of pelagic eggs in the vicinity of an oil-contaminated area; ruptured eggs would likely not be detected with the result that the pollutant impact could be underestimated.

Exposure of chum salmon and surf smelt eggs to the SWSF of weathered crude oil also resulted in reduced survival. The presence of weathered "mousse" in, or the removing of intertidally stranded oil from, spawning areas would be expected to promote even greater embryo mortality as a result of direct oil toxicity, suffocation, and physical disruption.

This report summarizes the results of a joint NOAA and EPA conference on the status and requirements of marine pollution monitoring programs along the coasts of Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. The meeting was hosted by the Office of Marine Pollution Assessment of NOAA and the Surveillance and Analysis Division of EPA Region X on January 6 through 8, 1981, at Seattle, Wash.

The purpose of the meeting and this report is to provide up-dated information on the status of marine pollution monitoring programs for the next Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution Research, Development and Monitoring, mandated by Public Law 95-273, and to assist the host agencies to develop their long-range plans for marine pollution monitoring. The Seattle meeting was one of six such assemblies held throughout the country during the fall and winter of 1980-81.

Chapter I of this report contains a summary of the background information given at the meeting by NOAA representatives. It contains definitions and recommendations from the Interagency Monitoring Subcommittee report and from the Report of the West Coast Region Conference on Marine Pollution Problems (conference was held in June, 1980, in Portland, Ore.).

Chapter II contains a summary of the key findings and recommendations of the meeting. These include the need to develop: (1) a mechanism for standardization, intercalibration and quality control of data collection and analysis; (2) a regional data and information dissemination and referral center; (3) a coordinated regional marine pollution monitoring program, tailored to the region; and (4) better coordination among the monitoring agencies.

Chapter III is the summary of the presentations of the local and municipal agency group, the industry group, federal agencies, the states of Oregon, Washington and Alaska, and Canadian representatives. This section highlights, as examples, the larger monitoring programs of the region and briefly presents the major concerns of each group.

Chapter IV is the regional assessment. It contains the major needs and recommendations and their rationale (when given) under the headings of "institutional needs", "management needs" and "technology needs".

Chapter V contains the summary of two papers presented at the meeting about approaches toward a national monitoring program and the recommendations of the attendees about possible implementation strategies. The approaches of the Swanson-O'Connor and the Segar papers basically rely on the existing and future compliance monitoring programs as a major data source to be used for regional environmental and ecological effects monitoring purposes. The first paper, however, recommends a broad, national surveillance program using sentinel organisms in addition to compliance monitoring. The second paper recommends adding ecology and "ocean climatology" monitoring programs, along with pollutant concentration trend monitoring and selected ecosystems research.

The State Water Resources Control Board (State Board) staff has prepared this final Functional Equivalent Document for consideration of several amendments to the California Ocean Plan. A hearing was held on the proposed amendments on August 29, 1989. We have summarized and developed responses for each comment received before the hearing record was closed. Some of the alternatives and Ocean Plan amendments have been modified to reflect the comments received. The report contains the staff review of some of the high priority issues raised in the Ocean Plan Triennial Review and Workplan (completed in 1987). A summary of the review follows:

1. Monitoring Guidance: We propose to reorganize the Ocean Plan slightly so guidance on plan implementation can be included in the plan as amendments are added. A new appendix is proposed for Ocean Plan monitoring guidance.
2. Bacterial Standards: We recommend a new bacterial assessment and remediation Section in Chapter II of the Ocean Plan.
3. Initial Dilution: We do not recommend any change in the use of minimum initial dilution for implementing water quality objectives.
4. Amendment to Table B Objectives: We recommend several new water quality objectives be included in Table B so the State Board can comply with Section 303(c)(2)(B) of the Clean Water Act (CWA). We recommend the use of method detection limits and practical quantitation levels to implement water quality objectives. For clarity of presentation we addressed the five sub-issues below:
   1. Update of Existing Table B Objectives: We recommend modifying the water quality objective for cyanide and total residual chlorine.
   2. Add New Water Quality Objectives to Table B: We recommend adding two new aquatic life water quality objectives (endosulfan and selenium) to Table B. The substances selected for incorporation in Table B are toxic pollutants identified under Section 307(a) of the CWA ("priority pollutants") not already contained in the Ocean Plan.
   3. Add New Water Quality Objectives to Protect Human Health from Consumption of Fish:We recommend several new objectives to protect human consumption of fish. We have used the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) methods for calculating the water quality objectives and have updated the fish consumption estimate and some of the potency factors.
   4. Add a Water Quality Objective for Chlorinated Dibenzodioxins and Dibenzofurans:We recommend a new human health objective for chlorinated dibenzodioxins and related dibenzofurans.
   5. Add a New Water Quality Objective for Tributyltin (TBT): We recommend adding a new human health water quality objective for TBT.
5. Bioassay Protocols and Their Implementation: We recommend the State Board adopt a new toxicity water quality objective and a list of protocols for implementing the objective.
6. Sludge Disposal: We recommend no change in the sludge disposal requirements in the Ocean Plan.

Study Objectives

This report presents the results of a joint effort by the Puget Sound Estuary Program (PSEP) and the Puget Sound Dredged Disposal Analysis (PSDDA) to develop sediment quality values for Puget Sound. These values represent concentrations of chemicals in sediments that are expected to be associated with adverse biological effects based either on field evidence or theoretical predictions. Ideally, the development of sediment quality values should be guided by definitive cause and effect information that relates the individual and collective effects of contaminants to a range of biological effects. Very little cause-effect information is available. The sediment quality values discussed in this report are interim estimates that have been developed as only one of several tools to assist managers in making sediment management decisions. The study objectives were to:

1. Compile chemical and biological data from Puget Sound appropriate for use in the development of sediment quality values
2. Evaluate techniques that can be used to develop chemical specific values
3. Evaluate the reasonableness of the values generated using different techniques (i.e., their ability to correctly identify sites with known biological impacts)
4. Evaluate the appropriateness of using the values in different regulatory applications
5. Identify future studies that will be needed to refine or verify the sediment quality values that are generated.

The scope of the fourth objective was refined during the project. Participants at a joint PSDDA/PSEP technical workshop concurred that a range of sediment quality values from several approaches should be provided to enable program managers to determine appropriate values for individual programs. Appropriate uses of the sediment quality values in different regulatory applications are discussed. Results that are pertinent to each objective are summarized in this report.

Material presented in appendices to this report addresses additional objectives related to statistical analyses of a subset of the chemical and biological data using pattern recognition techniques (Appendix D), recommended contaminants of concern (Appendix E), analytical detection limits (Appendix F), and appropriate uses of conventional sediment variables (Appendix G) for the management of dredged material. Responses to comments received on draft reports used to prepare this final report are summarized in Appendix H.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Eight possible approaches to establishing sediment quality values were evaluated based on (in order of decreasing importance):

• The plausibility and scientific defensibility of their theoretical bases and critical assumptions
• The quantity of data required, and the current availability of data (i.e., for generation of sediment quality values during the present project)
• The range of chemicals for which the approach is appropriate
• The range of biological effects information that can be incorporated into the approach.

Of the eight approaches reviewed, three were selected as the most appropriate for evaluation in this project with available Puget Sound data. These included the sediment-water equilibrium partitioning (EP), apparent effects threshold (AET), and screening level concentration (SLC) approaches.

For a given nonpolar, nonionic organic compound, the sediment-water equilibrium approach establishes a sediment quality value as the sediment concentration [normalized to total organic carbon (TOC) content] corresponding to an interstitial water concentration equivalent to the U.S. EPA water quality criterion for the contaminant. The relationship between sediment concentrations and interstitial water concentrations is calculated with an estimated sediment organic matter-interstitial water partition coefficient. Field data are not required to generate sediment quality values using this theoretical approach, but are used to validate the approach.

The AET value is the sediment concentration of a contaminant above which statistically significant biological effects (e.g., amphipod mortality, oyster larvae abnormality, depression in the abundance of benthic infauna) would always be expected. The approach was developed for use with any organic or inorganic contaminant, and does not require a priori assumptions concerning the specific mechanism for interactions between contaminants and organisms. AET are empirically derived from matched field data for sediment chemistry and a range of biological effects indicators.

The SLC approach estimates the sediment concentration of a contaminant above which less than 95 percent of the total enumerated species of benthic infauna are present. This approach was originally developed and recommended for use with nonpolar organic compounds normalized to organic carbon content in sediments (Battelle 1986). Possible use of the SLC approach with dry-weight normalized data (and contaminants other than nonpolar organic compounds) was also examined in the current study. This modification was evaluated for the SLC approach because (as with the AET approach, but unlike the equilibrium partitioning approach) a priori assumptions concerning the specific mechanism for interactions between contaminants and organisms are not necessary. SLC are empirically derived from matched field data for sediment chemistry and the abundance of individual species of benthic infauna project constraints permitted the testing of this approach for only three contaminants (naphthalene, high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydro carbons, and mercury) although the approach is not considered to be limited to these contaminants.

The application and evaluation of the selected sediment quality value approaches required that a large database of matched chemical and biological data be compiled. Of 11 Puget Sound data sets reviewed, paired data from 7 studies were included in the final database. These data included recent studies in Commencement Bay (Tetra Tech 1985), eight urban and nonurban embayments of Puget Sound (Battelle 1985a). Everett Harbor (U.S. Department of the Navy 1985), and Duwamish River (Chan et al. 1985a,b). Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle (Metro) data for the Alki Extension project (Osborn et al. 1985; Trial and Michaud 1985) and the Toxicant Pretreatment Planning Study (TPPS; Phase III, Comiskey et al. 1984; Romberg et al. 1984) were also included in the database.

Using the three selected approaches, sediment quality values were calculated for 73 individual or classes of U.S. EPA priority pollutants and other contaminants, and 3 conventional variables (e.g., TOC) and compared, when possible. In general, the magnitude of the sediment quality values for a given contaminant ranked SLC < AET < equilibrium partitioning.

The AET (normalized to sediment dry-weight, organic carbon content, and percent fine-grained material) and equilibrium partitioning approaches were tested with respect to the frequencies at which they correctly identified impacted stations and misidentified nonimpacted stations. Stations were designated as impacted or nonimpacted by independent statistical comparisons of biological data to reference conditions. These impacted/nonimpacted designations were based on four biological indicators: amphipod bioassays, oyster larvae bioassays, Microtox bioassays, and benthic infaunal analyses. A subset of impacted stations was designated as severely impacted based on somewhat arbitrary criteria: >50 percent amphipod mortality or oyster larvae abnormality, or statistically significant depressions in the abundance of more than one major taxonomic group of benthic infauna (including Mollusca, Polychaeta, Crustacea). This subset of severely impacted stations was only used as part of the validation check on sediment quality values, and not to generate sediment quality values.

The 40 sediment quality values from the equilibrium partitioning approach correctly identified between 13 and 43 percent of the impacted stations, and between 0 and 46 percent of severely impacted stations, depending on the biological indicator used for validation. This approach misidentified between 0 and 67 percent of the nonimpacted stations, depending upon the biological indicator used for validation.

The 64 sediment quality values from the AET approach (using dry-weight normalization) correctly identified between 54 and 94 percent of the impacted stations, and between 92 and 100 percent of severely impacted stations, depending on the biological indicator used for validation. Corresponding AET values generated from chemical data normalized to TOC or percent fine—grained material in sediments correctly identified between 37 and 88 percent of the impacted stations, and between 62 and 100 percent of the severely impacted stations, depending on the type of normalization and the biological indicator used for validation. The AET approach misidentified between 0 and 69 percent of the nonimpacted stations, depending upon the type of normalization used for chemical concentrations and biological indicator used for validation.

A detailed evaluation of the accuracy of SLC values was beyond the project scope, because SLC were generated for only three chemicals. It was assumed that such a small number of chemicals could not be expected to correctly identify all impacted stations. Hence, a preliminary evaluation was made only of the number of nonimpacted stations misidentified using each of these three SLC values. The approach misidentified between 15 and 70 percent of the nonimpacted stations, depending on the chemical, type of normalization of chemical concentrations and biological indicator used for validation.

Of the sediment quality values developed from field data (i.e., AET and SLC), the most accurate values were those generated from chemical data normalized to sediment dry weight. Potential reasons that sediment quality values normalized to organic carbon could be less predictive of biological effects than dry-weight normalized values are discussed in the report. Organic carbon normalization may be less predictive if sediment/interstitial water systems are not at equilibrium in the environment, if all organic matter in sediments does not have uniform affinity for nonpolar, nonionic pollutants, or if interstitial water is not the predominant route of contaminant uptake by organisms.

Precision of sediment quality values developed for each approach was estimated for selected components of uncertainty that could be quantified. The uncertainty of the equilibrium partitioning approach was estimated to range from less than one to six orders of magnitude of the calculated values, primarily because of uncertainty in the estimation of theoretical constants and the applicability of water quality criteria used in the approach. For a given set of field data, the uncertainty of the AET approach was estimated to range from much less than one to two orders of magnitude of the values generated, primarily because of potential misclassification of nonimpacted stations that are used to define the AET. An evaluation of the precision of SLC was beyond the project scope. A statistical evaluation of the precision of SLC has recently been completed by Battelle (1986); 95-percent confidence intervals are calculated for SLC values developed for nine contaminants in marine sediments.

The sediment quality values, in some cases with application of a "safety factor," are recommended for:

• Trigger levels for screening decisions on the need for further testing
• Prioritization of potential problem areas
• Identification of problem chemicals in an impacted sediment
• Identification of acceptable sediments for open-water disposal
• Prioritization of laboratory studies for determine cause-effect relationships.

Additional studies for refining or verifying the sediment quality values generated in this project are also recommended. Elements of these recommended studies would enlarge the database to improve the reliability of field-based sediment quality values, develop new kinds of sediment quality values (i.e., for different biological indicators), and improve the understanding of the interactions between sediment-bound contaminants and biological effects.

Four species of Exogone (Polychaeta: Syllidae) were identified from samples colected by an environmental monitoring programme in Repert Inlet, Vancouver Island. An identification system was developed for these species using the DELTA taxonomic database. E. molesta Banse, 1972 and E. lourei Berkeley, 1938 were the most frequent species in shallow (10m) and deep (116-200m) water respectively. E. verugera (Claparede, 1868) was rare. The single specimen of the remaining species was not E. gemmifera Pagenstecher, 1962 and will require proper description.

The purpose of this study is to conduct a taxonomic review of the polychaete worms belonging to the genus Cossura in British Columbia.

The project further attempts to use photography, both through light microscopes and a scanning electron microscope, as a means of clarifying the uncertainity over this genus, most of which centres around the use of the name C. longocirrata vs. C. soveri for a frequently occuring species on the west coast.

A total of 161 specimens were examined representing seven different locations in British Columbia as well as a few from outside the province.

Specimens represented four different species (C. longocirrata/soyeri, C. modica, C. pygodactylata, and C. candida). The latter being a newly recorded species for British Columbia.

A literature search was conducted and no basis for the use of the name C. soveri over C. longocirrata for local specimens was found.

Close examination of some of the C. longocirrata specimens documented the presence of a mid dorsal groove.

Spawning of Walleye as seen during this study, based on clear sightings of simultaneously released eggs and milt, consisted of a series of violent synchronized acts by promiscuous groups of fish. Each act was preceded by simple short courtship consisting of approaches and bodily contact between individuals, followed by an upward rush of grouped spawners. The literature indicates that the process is essentially similar in running and still water. There was a circadian behavioural cycle shown by walleyes on natural spawning grounds, in experimental tanks and in a stream-compound. The cycle consisted of daytime low activity expressed mainly by position-holding. And evening increase of activity expressed in courtship behaviour. Courtship patterns led to a series of spawning acts or else gradually ceased without consummation. Spawning behaviour of this type will influence the productivity of spawning grounds by the space requirements for active swimming by grouped fish during courtship.

Environmental surveillance programs spanning the period 1970-1985 at British Columbia coastal pulp mills, municipal waste discharges and mines are reviewed. Historical environmental problems, environmental improvements and current problems are discussed.

The review summarizes data obtained for receiving water, biota and sediment contaminant levels, physical habitat disruption, toxicity, aesthetic and microbiological pollution.

The review concludes that significant improvements have been made in some problem areas, such as the impact of pulp mill discharges. Bioaccumulation of contaminants from industrial and municipal effluents and the obliterative effects of mine tailings discharges require further study.

A taxonomic review of traditional and complex species of the genus Capitella found, or possibly found, on the west coast of North America revealed that the taxonomy is still unclear. Insufficient research on this ecologically important species needs to be corrected if proper identifications are to be completed. The use of computer generated descriptions and keys, which allow for flexibilty and completeness, may assist in identification problems. Until further research on the life histories, genetic electrophosis information and morphological data collected through SEM analysis is completed the data used in such systems may suffer from traditional problems associated with traditional keys. Such problems include the use of unreliable characteristics and the incompleteness of species included in such keys. With increasing emphasis on the understanding of stresses in the marine environment and the need for continuation of monitoring programs of new stresses and recovery from existing stressors it is essential that the taxonomy of such an important ecological indicator be solved. Current understanding of species complexes suggest that either a process of genetic transilience or flounder-flush methods of speciation are occuring to make taxonomic understanding a difficult problem to solve.

British Columbia's commercial fishery is an historic and important Provincial industry. This industry employs about 19,000 fishemen and shoreworkers or 3.4 percent of the Provincial labour force. Several thousand of these commercial fishermen are native Indians who are provided with a traditional and productive means of employment.

Although the processing sector of the industry has tended to become more centralized in recent years, mainly in the Prince Rupert and Lower Mainland areas, the fishing industry remains the economic mainstay of many coastal towns and villages.

The annual landed value of British Columbia's 550 million pounds of fishery products, 38 million dollars in the years 1960 to l962, represents about 1.5 percent of the Province's net value of production. This production is one-third of Canada's total landed value of fishery products. Salmon, halibut and herring make up 92 percent of the Province's fish landings. Of these fisheries salmon annually represent 26 percent of the total weight and 65 percent of the total landed value.

The fishing industry is facing a number of serious problems today and these problems have been well documented in a number of recent publications and briefs. The problems are associated with such things as too many fishermen fishing too few species with increasingly effective and expensive gear, extremely short fishing seasons (because of too much gear), foreign competition on the high seas, part-time commercial fishemen, competition fromsalmon sport fishermen, spiralling costs and decreasing returns.

Associated with these basic problems are other aspects of the fishing industry which may ad to the fundamental problems facing the fishermen. Some of these include the possible adverse effects of company financing of beats and gear, unemployment insurance and, low commercial licence fees, in holding and attracting marginal fishermen into commercial fisheries. Certainly the high dependence of the Provinces' commercial fisheries on salmon, halibut and herring contributes to many of the problems and although diversification is required as for example, the development of an offshore ground fish, sea perch or a tuna fishery, this may require large additional capital outlays for today's struggling fishermen and without substantial financial assistance such diversification is not likely to occur.

Other features of the commercial fishing industry which may contribute to some of the problems are the strong fisherman and processor organizations who are responsible for annual negotiation of prices, wages and working conditions within the industry and which so often seem to break down. The resulting industry tie-ups create further hardships for the fisherman and processors and make scientific management of the fisheries exceedingly difficult.

Jurisdictional management of all coastal and inland fisheries is a Federal responsibility and all laws and regulations dealing with management of the fishery resources are made by the Federal Government. Only within the sphere of "property" does the Province have jurisdiction and thus the Province enacts laws and regulations respecting disposition of fish once they have been removed from the water, i.e. registration of processing plants, sanitary-control of the shell-fish industry and the collection of some fishery statistics.

Administration of most fisheries is also carried out by Federal fishery agencies except where the Federal Government has, by agreement, passed this function to the Province. This is the case with respect to all fresh-water fisheries and the issue of oyster leases (even though the Federal Government still formalizes the passage of the appropriae management legislation).

At the present time there is some confusion with respect to the shell-fish industry because of the several Federal and Provincial fishery and health agencies involved with the management, inspection, leasing, and research functions associated with this industry.

Because of international aspects associated with most of the Province's fisheries it is proper that the bulk of jurisdictional management remain vested in the Federal authority.

In general it can be said that the major problem associated with the fact that all jurisdictional and most administrative fisheries management is a Federal responsibility, is that concerning liaison with the province. It is of some concern to the industry that the Province is not as "close" as it should be and once was when there was a provincial Department of Fisheries, to the everyday management of the fishery resource. This close working relationship between Federal and Provincial authorities is necessary because it is the Province which manages all natural resources, except fisheries, within its boundaries. The manner in which the Province allocates and uses its many natural resources is directly related to the conservation and development of the salmon resource - the backbone of British Columbia's fishing industry. Perhaps the existing excellent technical, albeit informal, liaison existing between senior fisheries personnel of the Department of Recreation and Conservation and other Provincial natural resource departments and the Federal Fisheries Department may not be enough as personnel changes may not ensure a perpetuation of the necessary co-ordination of interests.

There are many activities which can affect salmon production and thus the commercial fishing industry. Most of these activities are associated with natural resource use, water allocation and sport fishing. These matters were reviewed in Part II of the report.

Over 90 percent of the Province's salmon sport fishery effort is expended in the Gulf of Georgia and Southern Vancouve Island waters. The sport fishery is concentrated on chinook and coho salmon and, in recent years, pink salmon. These species accounted for an annual harvest of some 200,000 to 400,000 sport caught salmon during the period 1953 to 1963. This catch represents about 1.6 percent of the total salmon landings and is responsible for an angler expenditure of $19,000,000 annually.

In spite of the rapid increase in sport fish pressures each year, the 1957 and 1958 sport catch of salmon has not been matched in recent years.

In Southern Vancouver Island waters the sportsman's share of chinook and coho salmon has decreased significantly in the last few years. In these waters it appears that if sport or commercial catches of chinook and coho are to increase it will have to be either at the expense of the other fishery or as a result of increased salmon production because, at the moment, there appears to be an inverse relationship between commercial and sport catches of chinook and coho (when one goes up the other goes down).

The two to three thousand part-time commercial sport fishermen are often reported as a nuisance to full-time commercial fishermen and, although their catches do not loom large in the total salmon fishery, it is thought by many hardly fair that they should compete with the bona fide commercial troller. There is a need for a concerted study on the economic importance of the sport fishery in order that the resource can be managed in the best public interest.

Man's activities in watersheds can seriously affect a stream's capability to produce salmon. In this respect sufficient oxygen, certain temperature ranges, suitable spawning gravel, lack of siltation and clean water in stable quantities are required to produce maximum quantities of salmon. All of these limiting factors are governed by industrial activity within a particular watershed. Logging, mining, gravel removal, manufacturing processes and municipal sewage can adversely affect the production of fish in a number of ways, all of which are relaed to the limiting factors which are discussed in the text. With appropriate safeguards industrial development can be compatible with fishery interests but there must be a mutual appreciation of the benefits and costs that are involved. Once again emphasis apparently can be placed on the role of a strong provincial Fisheries organization in facilitating and expediting this mutual development of resources.

Because some of man's activities are inimical to fish production it is necessary that some corrective remedies be applied. Artificial spawning channels and control dams to regulate flow and temperature show considerable promise in increasing supplies of some salmon species. There is probably a need for exparded application of these practices to include additional salmon species as well as many more streams. Stream improvement on small coastal streams supporting relatively small runs of chum and coho salmon may be economically justified.

The discovery of the non-indigenous marine wood borers, Limnoria tripunctata and Teredo navalis, in British Columbia waters is described. Possible methods of introduction are discussed as well as means of dispersal. Probable limits of the future distributional patterns are suggested.

A taxonomic literature review was done on the polychaete Capitella capitata (Fabricius, 1780). Key bibliographies proved to be the most useful means for obtaining synonomy lists and taxonomic descriptions for Capitella Blainville, 1828 and C. capitata.

Benthic collections of C. capitata were obtained from the vicinity of the pulp mill effluent outlet at Crofton, BC Live and forminalized specimens were identified using diagnostic keys. Comparisons were made to the preserved types obtained from the BC Provincial Museum. The gross morphology and behaviour of the live specimens were noted and drawings were recorded. Setal structure and location in 19 preserved worms were examined under a light microscope. Eighteen polychaetes were tentatively identified as C. capitata oculata and one was C. capitata ovincola. Taxonomic verification from the Provincial Museum was still pending.

Gel electrophoresis was used to determine any genetic variability within the C. capitata population. The enzymes phosphoglucomutase (PGM), malate dehydrogenase (MDH) and -glycerophosphate dehydrogenase ( -GPDH) were assayed for. No results were obtained for -GPDH and inconsistent results due to poor separation and resolution were obtained for PGM and MDH. Conclusions were not drawn from the results.

This paper represents a preliminary work in ascertaining the presence of sibling species of Capitella capitata, an increasingly important world wide organism, in local waters. Specimens from Grofton and Steveston were compared Electrophoretically, morphologically using the Scanning Electron Microscope, and through breeding experiments.

More time and experience is required to improve the neutral results obtained from Electrophoresis. This technique should, however, be persevered with as it is a powerful tool in gathering evidence for the presence of sibling speciation within and between populations.

Morphological studies revealed disputed differences regarding the numerical makeup and shape of setae. Closer examination revealed structural differences in the tissue at the base of the setae.

Preliminary breeding efforts were successful and can form the basis of future work with the excellent facility available (oceanography lab temperature controlled cabinets).

Information regarding handling of C. capitata both in maintaining holding stocks for breeding, and preparation for S.E.M. and Electrophoresis is presented.

An expanded bibliogaphy is included for the benefit of future workers in this field.

A combined microbiological-benthic study in a prown- and shrimp- fishery area demonstrated extracellular chitinoclastic and proteolytic activity in extracted cultures. The former was detected in the genera Pseudomondd, Vibrio, Enterobacter and Achromobacter. Chitin contributions to the ecosystem were provided by Decapods, Polychaetes and meiofaunal Copepods. Other resistant biologically-produced material included cuticular structures of Polychaetes, Molluscs and Nematodes. The macrofauna was a typical sparse deep inlet species association, but the meiofauna was unusually abundant.

The shell morphology of 11 of 13 species of Macoma which occur in southern British Columbia coastal waters (M. alaskana, M. calcarea, M. carlottensis, M. elimata, M. expansa, M. incongrua, M. inguinita, M. nasuta, M. secta, and M. Yoldiformis) was quantitatively examined in order to clarify presently used, primarily subjective identification strategies. Separate one-way analysis of variance indicated strong overall difference between species character means for relative shell height (height/length), degree of valve inflation (shell breadth/length), position of the umbo (length from anterior shell margin to the umbo/ total length), hinge length relative to shell length, hinge width relative to hinge length, relative depth of the left pallial sinus, proportion of left and right pallial sinus depth and relative length of confluence of the pallial sinus with the pallial line. The strong overlap in 95% confidence intervals (based on pooled variance) drawn about individual species' character means underlines the difficulty in distinguishing between species on the basis of a few characters alone. While a small number of the species could be accurately identified on the basis of a small subset of morphometric characters examined, (e.g. M. secta has a much wider ligament than all other species; M. yoldiformis has a much smaller shell height relative to total length than all other species; M. inguinita can be distinguished solely on the basis of the closer proximity of the umbo to the anterior end) simultaneous application of characters examined, via multivariate methods would probably provide a more accurate means of species identification, particularly in absence of extensive collections for comparison between Macoma species. The regression of shell height, beadth, or length from the anterior to the umbo on total shell length as a measure of size or age for M. balthica and M. calcarea indicated that intraspecific variation over the range of shell size examined (juveniles were omitted from the study) may result in a decreased ability to distinguish between species. The variability of shell morphology due to factors other than size of individuals, such as sediment size or burrowing depth, was limited to approximately 1% to 23% of total variation depending on the species or character examined. The lack of plasticity of a species' shell morphology to environmental factors probably aids in accurate species identification.

Digital processing of LANDSAT I data supports earlier conclusions about the extension of the Fraser River Plume into the Juan de Fuca Strait on at least one occasion. Data from the few LANDSAT I images free from cloud cover are combined to estimate the average extent and sediment load of the Plume.

We have completed three years of field work in a study of the recovery of sea-bottom animal communities (benthos) from the effects of net-pen salmon aquaculture. The study has three main objectives. The first is to describe the rate and mechanisms of return toward the natural condition following the removal of overlying net-pen operations, and relate these to environmental factors such as bottom type, intensity of use and current speed. The second objective is to determine when fallowing may be required to prevent unacceptable environmental damage or reduced capacity of a site for aquaculture. The third objective is to develop and evaluate practical measures of benthic environmental status in the vicinity of net-pen operations.

Following an intensive search for appropriate study areas, we sampled at eight recently fallow aquaculture sites in September 1991 to February 1992. The sites represented the widest practical range of environments containing significant areas of soft bottom amenable to sampling for sediment-dwelling animals. At two sites, our sampling continues the record at previously established stations: the span of this study is extended to approximately five years.

The sampling program was continued at four sites in early 1993, and at a few key stations later the same year. In 1994, we performed a final round of sampling at three of the sites of slowest recovery.

The central product of the sampling and analysis is an identification, enumeration and biomass by species of benthic macrofauna (sieved onto 1 mm mesh) at 25 stations sampled in triplicate by Ponar grab, yielding 348 taxa. This is augmented by determinations of sediment characteristics including measures of organic accumulation, water quality profiles, and current measurements. We have archived this information in a computer database and prepared a reference collection of the species identified. Quantitative data is supported by images of bottom conditions in Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) video transects and 35 mm colour photographs.

Our data confirms previous studies showing that the benthic effects of net-pen salmon farming are restricted to the immediate vicinity of the pens. Intensity of effect ranges from minimal to severe, and is similar to impacts associated with other organic inputs such as sewage and pulp mill effluent.

All fallow sites recovered; there were no obvious irreversible effects. Recovery progressed through at least three distinct community states, rather than transforming smoothly and directly from the strongly affected state to the natural state. At the most intensely affected sites there is a refractory period before benthic community recovery begins. During the refractory period, physical, chemical and microbial processes are required to render the site habitable by any macrofauna. Once macrofaunal colonization occurs, initial recovery progresses more rapidly. The final phase of recovery is a gradual approach to the reference state as dominants and then rare members of the natural community complete replacement of the initial colonists.

The indicator polychaete Capitella capitata is characteristic of extreme effects and early recovery. Other polychaetes Nephtys cornuta and Dorvillea rudolphi appear as early successional dominants, but thereafter the order of succession is determined by chance of season and larval dispersal.

Cluster analysis separated affected from unaffected sites during early phases of recovery, but as fallow sites approached the condition of their controls, the distinction was lost. Analysis of the complete data set as a unit did not reveal significant association between the benthic communities at different sites.

Principal components analysis provided a complementary view of benthic community change. All severely affected stations were closely associated, but as recovery progressed the fallow stations all moved to the positive limb of Factor 1, to become similar to their control stations. Recovered and control stations for different sites occupied different regions of the factor score plot, as distinguished on Factors 2 and 3.

We present a practical measure of recovery, the time when diversity has recovered to the point when it is statistically indistinguishable from that of a reference station. Complete recovery, which cannot be determined with certainty, will occur at some multiple of PR₉₅. Practical recovery times in this study fell into three groups: short recovery (0-8 months, Sansum Narrows and Village Bay); moderate recovery time (Kanish Bay, Clam Bay, Daniel Point); and long recovery time (20 - 50 months, Nanoose Harbour, Tranquil Inlet). Recovery is hastened by the associated factors high current velocity, sand (large sediment particle size) and low organic content. The identified antagonists of rapid recovery are low current velocity, silt/clay and high organic content.

The second objective is to determine when fallowing is required. There is no evidence in our results that net pen aquaculture causes irreversible damage to the benthic environment. None of our direct measurements relate to the effects of benthic conditions on farm operations. This aspect of the objective will best be addressed through literature review and interviews with farm operators. The third objective, to develop practical measures of benthic status, has been met. Moderate to severe states of benthic community effect are seen in the presence of indicator species, especially Capitella capitata as a dominant, and visible effects such as the white stain of Beggiatoa and gas or oil bubbles at the surface. Sedimentary organic content and hydrogen sulfide content are simple confirmatory measurements. Most of the required observations are relatively inexpensive, and can be performed by competent generalist biologists. Benthic indicator species require specialist confirmation, and benthic community analysis, if required, should be undertaken only by experts.

Preliminary monitoring at the proposed Cape Lazo discharge point was implemented in July 1980 to check local suitability of various standard and newly developed tests. Results indicate that a comprehensive baseline monitoring programme prior to discharge could establish the state of the receiving environment and could do so with a sufficient number of measures that subsequent minor effects of the discharge could be quality controlled. Such a comprehensive monitoring programme would include tests on chemical and bacterial composition of the sewage, the receiving sea-water, shellfish and the sea-bed; the diversity of organisms on the sea-bed and on shore; the extent of sewage-borne litter; chemical and pathological assays on shellfish and juvenile salmon. The cost however would be extremely high.

An alternative less extensive monitoring programme is preferred, based on tests to determine whether constraints on Receiving Area changes are exceeded. Such constraints should be specified on the Discharge Permit.

The monitoring should be supervised by a professional scientist independent of the Regional District and the design engineers. A specific recommendation involving North Island College is made.

Over the nine-year period of surveys (1965-1974), the benthic infauna showed no trends in species biodiversity or abundance, but wide levels of fluctuation between 3040 species per 0.1 m² sample, and 260-850 organisms/m². Consistently present were widely spread and abundant polychaetes, both errantia and sedentaria, molluscs, amphipods and echinoderms. Largest (heaviest) species were echinoderms and molluscs. Species usually present were the polychaetes Nephtys sp. Maldane glebifex and Prionospio sp., the bivalve molluscs Compsomyax subdiaphana, Macoma elimata, Yoldia ensifera, Macoma carlottensis, Macoma brota, and Pandora grandis, the ophiuroid Ophiura sarsi, the holothuroids Molpadia intermedia and Pentamera lissoplica and the echinoid Brisaster latifrons. Amphipods although abundant, but were not sorted and identified to species, and not all polychaetes present were identified to species. Biodiversity therefore was slightly greater than as described here. The community although fluctuating in species biodiversity and abundance, appeared to be stable within a highly variable norm during the surveyed period 1965-1974.

The macrobenthos sampled from fine-grained sediments investigated microbiologically agreed with previous information on deep water species associations in British Columbia threshold fjords - there was a restricted range of species present in small amounts and with low biomass. Most abundant species was a small bivalve Psephidia lordi, but polychaetes as a group were well represented. Decapod carapace and antenna fragments indicated extension of local productive shrimp-prawn trawling grounds to the depths sampled, but appropriate sampling by trawl was unsuccessful due to problems with the gear at depth. Results indicate substantial deposits of chitin through Crustacean remains and polychaete elytrae. No estimate of lignin and cellulose deposits was made, although these must be considered as depositing resistant materials. The species associational data and the mechanical analysis data suggest that overall results of the micro- and macro-biological program should have applicability widely through deep British Columbia inlets.

The meiofauna at the sampled site is dominated by nematodes, with copepods also abundant. Ostracods comprise a relatively large part of the dry weight biomass.

The dominant taxa are cuticulous, with a variety of strengthening materials including: keratin, matricin, collagen and chitin. Waxes may be present.

A reasonably diverse array of shellfish (bivalve molluscs) inhabit sediment beds close to the tidal channel at hte north-east end of Esquimalt Lagoon. These include the soft-shell clam, Mya arenaria, the Littleneck clam, Protothaca staminea, and the bentnose clam, Macoma nasuta. Shells of the butter clam, Saxidomus giganteus, the basket cockle, Clinocardium nuttallii, the horse clam, Tresus capex, the mussel Mytilus edulis and Venerupis japonica were also collected. A variety of other marine organisms inhabit the shellfish beds including eelgrass and algae, polychaete worms, crabs, shore birds and diving birds. A lesser range of species occurred at the head of the lagoon near the base of Coburg spit. Almost no living organisms were collected on the seaward side of the spit at its mid-point and at its base.

Marine oligochaetes including the species Limnodriloides victoriensis occur widely in shallow fine and coarse grained sediments in the S.E. Vancouver Island region. They are not abundant, require careful shipboard separation from deposits, and laboratory-based separation while alive from the abundant small polychaetes. Surveys consequently proceed slowly; but once areas of known occurrences are determined collections can be speeded up.

An expeditious quantitative sampling technique is to elutriate by hose grab samples placed in a large bucket, pouring the elutriant in batches through tiered 500 and 250 mesh screens. Continuing lack of visible invertebrates in the elutriant indicates that extraction is complete.

A FORTRAN IV program which simulates the progression of wind waves from deep water into shallow water is described. The program which was developed to run on the Royal Roads computing facilities is a modified version of HYDRSDC by Crookshank (1976) which was based on REDSEA by Worthington and Herbich (1970). The program includes provision for refraction, shoaling, diffraction, reflection from a breakwater, currents, and plots of the wave rays with crest marks and bottom contours.

An outline of shallow water wave theory, the program, and the input data required to run the program are given. Sample refraction diagrams generated by the program for the Comox, B. C. area are presented. Appendices include a listing of the program, sample input data, sample prInter output, and operating instructions to run the program at Royal Roads.

1. The distribution of larvae and adult oysters, Ostrea lurida and Crassostrea gigas was surveyed in Portage Inlet, Vancouver Island from June 11, 1966 to March, 1967.
2. The larvae of both species were recorded in highest densities at the commencement of observations on June 22, 0. lurida was recorded at 2.4 larvae per litre and C. gigas at 1.8 larvae per litre. Larval densities were reduced to zero by August 10 for C. gigas and by August 24 for 0. lurida.
3. Some spat settling was recorded from June 29 to August 24 but technical problems prevent a good quantitative assessment.
4. Living adults of both species were extremely rare in the Inlet itself in 1966. Crassostrea gigas was located in patches in the Inlet and the Gorge. Ostrea lurida was found living only in the Gorge.
5. The limiting factors to C. gigas seem to be temperature and lack of a suitable substrate. The extreme temperature and salinity range and sediment probably prevent penetration of 0. lurida higher up the Inlet. At station 1 high up the Inlet the salinity ranges from 0 o/oo to 34 o/oo and the temperature from 3 degrees C to 27 degrees C. At station 8 near the Upper Harbour salinity ranges through the year from 18 o/oo to 32 o/oo and temperature from 7 degrees C to 18 degrees C.
6. Portage Inlet is a "normal" estuary in winter, i.e. salinities are reduced upstream. In summer it is a neutral, well mixed and hypersaline estuary as a result of low run-off and evaporation.
7. Through interpolation and use of the literature it was estimated that the larvae were first released in the Gorge about May 14 when the water temperature was 16 degrees C.
8. Larvae were fairly evenly distributed in the Inlet and spat was caught at all stations. The factors which affect the adult disribution must operate at the time of settling or soon after.

1. Approximately 50 sea otters were censused near the Bunsby Islands in Checleset Bay during June and July, 1978. An aerial census on June 14 located 51 sea otters in Checleset Bay, and 16 at Bajo Reef. On February 19, 1979, an aerial census located 15 individuals in Checleset Bay.
2. Raft aggregations contained adult females, mothers with dependent young or pups, and subadults (both sexes). These rafts occupied a home range area of approximately 9 km2 in reefs to the southwest of the Bunsby Islands. Solitary adult males habituated locales on the periphery of the home range and closer inshore to the Bunsby Islands.
3. Three main rafting areas in kelp beds east of Humpback Island, southeast of Gull Island, and north of Farout Reefs were used. Travel to and from raft locales was recorded, generally in the early to mid-morning and evening. Rafts rested at Humpback Island and Farout Reefs during the day, and apparently at night also, but usually formed at Gull Island for overnight periods only. There was evidence of nocturnal travel to and from Gull Island.
4. A brief storm period resulted in large rafts resting at Gull Island during the day. Movement inshore to more sheltered reefs and kelp beds may represent a response to storm activity in the summer, but more particularly to winter storms. Similarly, persistently fair weather in June and July, 1978, may have enabled otters to use more exposed rafting areas (i.e. Humpback Island and Farout Reefs). The movements of otters inshore to more sheltered waters in response to storms has been reported in Alaska (Kenyon, 1967) and California (Shimek and Monk, 1977).
5. The winter aerial survey (February 19, 1979) located 15 individuals, all midway between Gull and Cautious Islands (approx. 1430 h). None of the approximately 35 remaining otters were located by this brief survey. Scagel (1947) reports extensive reduction of annual Nereocystis luetkeana and perennial Macrocystis integrifolia kelp beds due to winter storm activity at Vancouver Island, but as of February, kelp beds utilized by rafting sea otters in June and July, 1978, appeared largely intact with the exception of reductions in N. luetkeana beds at Humpback Island and Farout Reefs. Possibly these, and further, reductions over the winter may also induce movement inshore to kelp beds in more sheltered locations.
6. Mating activity was observed. This activity and the recording of mothers with young in rafts indicates the Bunsby population is breeding. This is an indication of transplant success.
7. The 1978 census total is an apparent decrease from the transplanted total (89 individuals), and there does not appear to have been the 10% annual population increase reported for Alaskan sea otters in newly occupied habitat (see Kenyon, 1969) for 1977 or 1978. Breeding females and subadults are predominantly in the population currently. Possibly this breeding is not yet counter-balancing mortality in the largely adult stock originally introduced and the annual rate of increase may vary until a normal age distribution develops and eliminates any effect from these adult animals (Bigg and McAskie, 1978). The large portion of subadults may be contributing to a low productivity in the population.
8. Foraging activity was generally during early-mid morning and evening and on the predominant food item, a white clam. The apparent reductions in urchin and abalone concentrations since 1972 are probably due largely to commercial urchin and abalone harvests at the Bunsby Islands around 1975 (Dave Smith, BC Marine Resources Branch, personal communication). Most foraging activity observed was in less than 10 fathoms depth. Since sea otters are known to forage to 30 fathoms depth in California and Alaska (see Kenyon, 1969), this indicates that full use of the Bunsby habitat is not occurring.
9. The concentration of the small Bunsby population in the home range area makes it particularly vulnerable to catastrophic loss (e.g. oil spillage, a known hazard on the west coast of BC) and local disturbance. There is increasing local disturbance in the form of tourist and fishing boat traffic, and also proposed log-booming operations. Protection of this population, its habitat and food stocks (particularly in light of previous commercial harvest in the area) while it increases, and attains a normal age distribution, is strongly recommended. Ecological Reserve status in Checleset Bay would provide a necessary protection and delineate further habitat for a spreading population. Also, additional transplants of sea otters to BC would reduce the likelihood of a total loss of stock through catastrophic disturbance.

A the request of both Petrocan and Chevron, a literature survey was carried out concerning possible impacts of offshore oil drilling operations on algal populations in the Queen Charlotte Island region. An historic survey of industries utilizing algae, as well as recent kelp bed surveys for the Queen Charlotte Islands has been included. The possible release of heavy metals (due to this drilling and the mud disposal) and their fate in the oceanic environment needs to be studied for these particular operations, so that algal populations will not be exposed to this form of contamination in the case of a major oil spill. The use of dispersants was found to be inadvisable, since the combination of dispersant/crude oil was considerably more toxic than each of the components on its own. The general conclusion is that, apart from a major oil spill and lack of knowledge about the nature and the fate of possible released heavy metals, routine drilling operations and the installation of permanent oil wells will have no significant impact on either the phytoplankton or the macrophytes in this area, provided certain precautionary measures are implemented.

Very substantial, but qualitative, information is available on the distribution of marine benthic species inhabiting northern British Columbia, but only the molluscs, echinoderms, the common polychaetes and the larger crustacea can be regarded as nearly taxonomically stable and hence potentially routinely identifiable with accuracy. For quantitative appraisal of benthic ecosystems, a considerable number of species probably remains to be separated as distinct forms, some of which may be important in ecosystem processes. Laboratories in BC engaged in routine identifications do not as yet have inter-laboratory calibrations as quality control procedures.

Quantitative information on benthic components of marine ecosystems is available from southern British Columbia for shallow water and may be applicable with appropriate modifications to northern BC Some stock and yield information is available for a variety of shellfish species in northern BC, but there has been little overlap with information on benthos as feed stocks for shellfish (or groundfish). Materials and energy budget approximations may be quite inaccurate.

A protocol has been developed in this report to compartmentalise benthic contributions to marine ecosystem dynamics for northern BC This is based on feeding strategies, modified by variables of depth and habitat. Recently detailed dynamics of a few trophic chains as revealed for other areas should be applicable with modification to northern BC These include the kelp—sea-urchin (abalone)—sea-otter (lobster) chain, and the amphipod—salmon (juvenile) chain. There is energy budget information from a shallow embayment in the San Juan Islands (latitude 48 degrees 30'N), and for a common intertidal barnacle specie (latitude 49 degrees 20'N).

Productive and hence environmentally sensitive areas occur throughout shallow water in northern BC including crab-clam-shrimp grounds on sediment beds, and abalone-urchin-prawn-octopus grounds on rocky bottom.

The District of Kitimat is concerned that the pipeline applications do not document locally important environmental conditions as fully as is needed for proper impact prediction, mitigation planning, and subsequent environmental quality control monitoring. Furthermore with the information available to the National Energy Board from the applications, the Board may not be able to fully appraise the significance of local impact on Kitimat, and possibly other communities on the combined pipeline-tanker route. Sections of the applications where the deficiencies exist are indicated in this report, and the request made formally that these deficiencies be remedied.

In addition, the District has three general concerns; and requests concerning each.

First, the pipeline and supplying tankers together comprise the proposed oil transportation system. The District asks the National Energy Board to exercise its stated policy of satisfying "...itself that the construction and operation of the pipeline facilities approved by it will not cause environmental impact or pollution in excess of the limits set by those agencies with primary responsibility therefor". In particular since tankers are essential to operation of the pipeline, the District asks the Board to satisfy itself that there will be adequate ship inspection and marine traffic control systems, and contingency measures for environmental protection at sea in the event of a spill.

Second, the District is concerned that there will be adequate environmental studies both before and during operation so that the quality of the environment can be properly controlled through the lifetime of the pipeline-tanker oil transportation system. The District asks that the pipeline cornpany be required to undertake such studies subject to review of proposals and reports by government agencies, to additional government monitoring action where appropriate, and to public release of the environmental reports.

Third, the District is concerned that due to unprecedented features of the pipeline-tanker oil transportation system, there will be continuing need for information input from those communities potentially subject to impact. Kitimat with much at stake environmentally asks the National Energy Board to make approval of the Application dependent on formation and adequate operation of a channel of communication between government regulatory agencies, the pipeline company and the District of Kitimat.

Computer print-outs of all discharge data for the Kitimat District in Pollution Control Branch files were requested in March 1977. The print-outs provided are bound in three volumes with this summary of coverage.

Volume I lists computer files relevant to Kitimat, and provides an index so that specific files can be located in subsequent volumes. Section 1 is a computer print-out index indicating which applications and issued permits have provided data for filing. Section 2, 3 and 4 provide permit terms and conditions for liquid, air and refuse discharges respectively. There are three major dischargers (the District of Kitimat, Alcan and Eurocan) and three minor (Scott Construction, Canadian Liquid Air and Ocean Construction). Section 5 lists and describes receiving area sampling sites. Note that an input error in latitude and longitude has included Berryland Cannery of Haney in the print-outs.

Volume II provides input data and summary statistics for liquid discharges from the District of Kitimat treatment plant and Eurocan pulp mill. Both discharges have substantial data on file.

Volume III provides input data and summary statistics for liquid discharges from Alcan and the three minor dischargers, and also input data and summary statistics for aquatic receiving area stations in creeks, rivers and Kitimat Arm. It is noticeable that the Alcan mill has substantially less liquid discharge monitoring data than the other two major dischargers.

Volume III provides input data and summary statistics for air emission monitoring, most of which is provided by Alcan. It is noticeable that, although Eurocan like other pulp mills, produces an air emission with social and economic impact, it has a relatively minor air monitoring program.

The collated data indicate that certain physical-chemical pollutant-related parameters have been monitored extensively over several years, and are available for review to determine whether conditions are contravening the discharge permits or not, or possible whether conditions give cause for concern so that changes in permit constraints are indicated. The collated data and summary statistics do not however provide a review of the environmental situation, although a cursory examination comparing results for significant parameters such as dissolved oxygen, fluoride, etc. at selected stations could indicate whether such a detailed review should be requested of the Pollution Control Branch. A detailed review might be a substantial undertaking in view of the large amounts of data for some parameters, and the complexity of the sampling station pattern.

The collated data also illustrate another aspect of environmental management and monitoring. The lower Kitimat valley is being used as a multiple discharge receiving area with potential for interactions between gaseous, ground and liquid discharges through the hydrological cycle. The lower Kitimat Valley is one of several such topographically-definable multiple discharge receiving areas in the province which could merit environmental impact assessment and surveillance as a unit by a designated team. This has been done for the Kootenay Valley by an inter-departmental team of the provincial resource agencies, for the lower Fraser Valley by a University Agency Westwater, and was requested for Howe Sound at the 1976 BC Public Inquiry into Pollution Control Objectives for the Forestry Industry.

Reviews of deficiencies in the NEB and TERMPOL applications with J. Cressey, Kitimat Pipe Line Ltd and R. Strang consultant to the Kitimat-Stikine Regional District produced considerable information answering some concerns of the District of Kitimat, and identified further desirable action by Kitimat.

The City should review the Regional District's forthcoming deficiency statement on the land environment and extend its implications to within city limits. Decisions should be made as soon as possible on the form of land restoration most suitable to the City's needs. One or more of several channels of inputting those needs into the pipeline construction contracts should be followed. This appears to be an important means of environmental control and if at all possible the City should monitor the progress of easement negotiations between property owners and the pipeline company, since these will determine environmental control requirements in the construction contracts.

In marine matters, KPL has advanced its commitments to accident prevention in TERMPOL volume 7 but notes that inspection and rejection of inadequate tankers is a Federal responsibility. In the same context Government Agencies have accepted responsibility for some aspects of oil spill contingencies.

The NEB deficiency letters raise issues ranging from economics and organisation to environmental matters, but the replies produce no new environmental information.

The TERMPOL deficiency statement raises a similar broad ranges of issues but answers are not yet available from the pipeline company.

Answers to points of detail raised by Kitimat in their deficiency statement are not provided in the company's replies to the NEB letters.

An investigation was carried out to determine the cause of a seawave that damaged wharf installations at the head of the Kitimat Arm of the Douglas Channel on the northwest coast of BC on April 27, 1975. It is concluded that the seawave was a result of a 3 million cu. yd. submarine landslide that occurred in soft marine clay at Moon Bay on the west side of the inlet.

1. Since there has never been a major oil spill in North Coast British Columbia waters, the implications of such a spill to fishery resources must be based on our current understanding of life histories and limited information gained from oil spill case histories and toxicity studies in other parts of the world.
2. To help place potential fishery concerns in perspective, a "worst case" scenario was developed. The Kitimat estuary was chosen as the scene of a major hypothetical oil spill because it is the site of the proposed tanker terminal facilities and contains all five species of Pacific salmon, steelhead populations, as well as groundfish and herring resources. This spill was assumed to have occurred during mid-June when juveniles of most major fishery resources are likely present in the estuary, and some adult spawning migrations are in progress.
3. Selected fisheries experts from Federal, Provincial, and international agencies and institutions were interviewed to provide opinions as to possible "worst case" effects, and the state-of-the-art of fishery resource rehabilitation including successes, and failures.
4. In assessing the implications of an oil spill to selected fishery resources, it must be emphasized that effects of hydrocarbons vary with species, stage of life history, type of petroleum, prevailing meteorological and oceanographic conditions, and duration of exposure.
5. Toxicity studies to date have primarily focused on the effects of petroleum and petroleum constituents on juvenile stages of the life histories of salmonids and the eggs and larvae of groundfish and herring since these stages are generally considered most sensitive.
6. In general, volatile aromatic constituents of crude oil are the most toxic fractions to fish. At low concentrations these compounds produce behavioural abnormalities, anaesthesia, and respiratory narcosis; higher concentrations usually result in lost of equilibrium, cell damage, and death.
7. Estimated mean annual escapement of chinook salmon to the Kitimat River system since 1967 is 8,000 fish. Downstream migrating juveniles and returning adults are both characterized by a multiple age class structure. Mature chinook have been reported in the estuary from March through September, although most abundant during July and August. Juveniles are present in the Kitimat estuary from April to August. There have been a number of successful rehabilitation programs along the Pacific coast, although few in northern waters. Substantial mortality and/or adverse sublethal effects could occur to both adult and juvenile chinook due to a major oil spill in mid-June. However, given the multi-age class structure, the relatively lengthy time span in the estuary, and present enhancement technology, it is considered unlikely that irreversible effects to chinook resources could occur.
8. Recent escapement of chum salmon to the Kitimat River system has ranged from 2,000 in 1965 to 60,000 in 1972. Although returning adults are characterized by multiple age class structure, chum fry generally migrate downstream as one age class. Adults are present in the estuary from July through August while juveniles arrive from May to July. The length of residency of chum juveniles in the Kitimat estuary is not known, but based on observations in the Skeena River system, probably begin to move offshore in late August to early September. Chum salmon have been successfully reared in hatcheries and stream-side incubators in the United States. A major oil spill in mid-June would not affect a large proportion of returning adults which peak in late July and August. However, a "worst case" spill could result in significant mortality and sublethal effects to juvenile chums present in the estuary. A loss of this magnitude will not likely have long-term irreversible impacts to the Kitimat stocks because of overlapping age classes in adults, and the state of art in chum rehabilitation and enhancement. It must be emphasized, however, that since downstream migrants are of one age class, the biological implications of an oil spill to juveniles of this species is greater than to all other Pacific salmonids, with the exception of pink salmon.
9. Estimated mean annual escapement of coho salmon to the Kitimat River system from 1965 to 1974 was 11,450 fish. As with chinook, downstream migrating juveniles and returning adults are both characterized by a multiple age class structure. Mature spawning stocks of Kitimat coho are present in the estuary from July to November, with September and October being the period of maximum abundance. Juvenile coho may likely be found in the estuary from March through August. Coho lend themselves to hatchery production, and there have been a number of successes in the United States and southern British Columbia (Capilano). Substantial mortality and/or adverse sublethal effects could occur to juvenile coho due to a major spill in mid-June. Adults would not likely be affected by a spill at this time (although they could be given another hypothetical spill date). As with chinook and sockeye, given the multiple age class structure, the relatively lengthy time span in the estuary, and present enhancement technology, it is considered unlikely that irreversible effects to coho resources could occur. However, rehabilitation to damaged stocks could be difficult and expensive.
10. Two genetically distinct populations of pink salmon are found in British Columbia waters. Kitimat pink stocks are primarily even-year spawners, although small runs of odd-year fish have been recorded. Annual estimated escapements have ranged from a low of 1,800 in 1971 to 246,500 in 1972, and have averaged approximately 97,000 between 1965 and 1974. Adults enter the Kitimat estuary during a relatively short period between July and August. Consequently, a "worst case" spill during mid-June would not likely affect mature pink salmon. Fry migrate downstream to the Kitimat estuary between April and May, and by mid-June virtually all pink salmon smolts would be in Kitimat Arm. Successful attempts to transplant or rehabilitate pink stocks have been extremely limited and costly. A major oil spill in the Kitimat estuary could destroy an entire year class of juvenile pinks; particularly in light of their shoreline surface habitat. Since pink salmon do not have overlapping age classes like other Pacific salmon and each run is genetically distinct, loss of an entire year class would be a major biological concern. With the demonstrated lack of success in the rehabilitation of pink salmon, restoration of depleted stocks cannot be guaranteed given present technology and would likely require several decades.
11. Although the Kitimat River once supported sizeable stocks of sockeye salmon, present escapement is very small, averagmg about 100 fish. Consequently, even if a "worst case" oil spill destroyed the entire population, rehabilitation of stocks would not be an economic necessity. However, if this remnant population was lost, so would the endemic gene pool.
12. The Kitimat River system supports a considerable run of steelhead and mature populations could be found in the estuary at any given time of the year. The timing of juvenile steelhead utilization of the estuary is not well documented, but probably includes the spring and summer months. There have been a large number of successes in rehabilitating and enhancing steelhead runs, and given the success and the multiple age class life history structure, it is considered unlikely that a major oil spill could cause irreversible losses to large populations of steelhead. However, success in rehabilitating "unique" stocks of steel-head have been poor, and distinct races of fish with limited abundance could be lost.
13. Halibut are relatively abundant in Kitimat (as evidenced by the sport catch). Catches of Pacific cod are low, while other groundfishes are abundant in the area. Because of life history characteristics such as inherent stock mobility, the probability that groundfishes of the area would be irreversibly affected by a "worst case" oil spill is extremely low. However, due to possible tainting of fish tissue by ingested hydrocarbons, recreational fishing in the affected area could be adversely affected for several years.
14. The Kitimat estuary possesses comparatively low stocks of Pacific herring which are of little economic value. Herring spawn along the foreshore near Minette Bay during March and April. By mid-June, larval herring would be abundant in shoreline areas, particularly in regions with a dense cover of eelgrass. Given the susceptibility of larval herring to oil, a major spill affecting rearing areas could kill virtually all juveniles present in Kitimat Arm. This effect is not considered irreversible because of factors such as multiple age classes, straying, and recruitment from adjacent stocks. However, restoration of herring resources, albeit of low economic value, could take ten years or longer, particularly if preferred spawning habitat remains contaminated for more than one year or is re-oiled from oil present in sediments and intertidal areas.
15. The "worst case" scenario presented for fishery resources of Kitimat Arm must be viewed in the light of a number of potentially mitigating factors which are extremely important in placing in perspective concerns related to a major oil spill, and assessing what could happen as opposed to what is likely to happen. These factors include the fact that in a "worst case" situation, many low probability events are assumed to occur simultaneously, avoidance reactions, and oil-repellant properties of fish, evaporation of the most toxic constituents of crude oil and considerable evidence of fish recovery following exposure to sublethal doses of hydrocarbons. It is also important to emphasize that a detailed contingency plan has been developed and would be implemented immediately upon notification of a spill, and that any oil recovered would reduce the potential for short and long-term adverse effects to fishery resources.

In summary, the implications of a major uncontained oil spill to important North Coast fishery resources were examined utilizing a "worst case" scenario for the Kitimat estuary. It was concluded that such a spill could have serious and long-term adverse effects to fishery resources, and the degree of effects would be very much dependent upon the location and timing of such an occurrence and the species affected. The possibility of irreversible effects occurring to a specific resource, although considered improbable, is highest with pink salmon because of the nature of their life history and current record of stock rehabilitation and enhancement success. For all species examined, although recovery might take several decades and require substantial enhancement funding, none of the potential affects are likely to be irreversible to major fishing resources.

The process of upriver migration consists largely of steady swimming in schools at or below the maximum sustainable swimming speed. Migrants follow distinct routes and show sequences of behaviour which can be related to river biotopes.

In river pools migration consists of entry by steady or dart swimming followed by a brief pause, then steady swimming directed to depth leading the salmon to the pool headwater. There the salmon break into dart swimming and enter turbulence and white water. Passage through pools is often interrupted by waiting-periods during which the salmon engage in position-holding, surfacing and wandering movements. At falls, the sequence of migratory movements consists of dart approach to the hydraulic jump, leaping and darting over the fall's crest. Nosing at the jet or rock-face may occur. In open channels, the sequence of behaviour consists of either steady or dart-swimming. The environmental situation coinciding with the appearance of dart swimming is fast, turbulent water, which contains several potential stimulii for the response. An estimate obtained for one factor within the critical hydraulic conditions is opposing current velocity greater than 2.5 ft/sec (0.75 m/sec) for sockeye salmon averaging 2 ft (0.6 m) in body length. Migration in open channels is often interrupted: after darting by position-holding in eddies, and after steady swimming by waiting periods consisting of position holding at depth, surfacing and wandering movements.

Nocturnal migration occurs in low gradient biotopes, but is liable to stop at falls and rapids. During nocturnal migration salmon continue to move upriver by steady swimming; but schools break up, and salmon travel singly and rise off bottom near the surface. They will thus enter faster and more turbulentwater than during daylight, possibly accounting for the nocturnal blocks in steep gradient biotopes.

Waiting periods during migration occur for various time-periods and migration restarts under several different sets of environmental conditions. Waiting periods appear to serve several defferent biological functions, and the various processes by which migration is temporarily stopped and then re-started appear to be responses to different sets of environmental stimulii.

Waiting periods may last days, and re-starting consists of mass movements upriver usually coinciding with river freshet, heavy or light rainfall, or passage of an atmospheric depression with consequent weather changes. Waiting periods may last hours and then are commonly expressed in diel patterns. In pools and low gradient slopes (e.g. River flats) there is often little migration each afternoon or between midnight and dawn. In steep gradient biotopes (e.g. Falls and rapids) migration of ten ceases at night, and during daylight often occurs in irregular surges. Where runs extend over several days, salmon may move upriver in 24-hours or 12-hour waves, and diel patterns of migration will vary progressively along the length of the river. When very large numbers of salmon are migrating, diel patterns tend to be eliminated. Waiting periods may last minutes in the form of position-holding after dart-swimming, as pauses at points of topographic change, and as dart excape responses from apparent predators. Brief pauses of seconds or hesitant slow swimming iccur when salmon break into surfacing movements, show mouth, head or body movements apparently serving to remove disturbing stimulii, or at situations where alternative routes are available and a choice must be made.

The hypothesis is developed that migration once released proceeds by steady swimming in schools directed by various environmental stimuli in different biotopes. Such migration may be temporarily blocked by a number of environmental controls arranged in a hierarchical system, such tht shorter waiting periods are each nested within those larger. All blocking mechanisms must be switched off for migration to restart. In fast turbulent water, steady swimming in schools is superceded by a dart-and-leap sequence of behaviour. This is carried to completion at falls, but the initial darting, without the leap, may serve to carry the salmon through rapids into tranquil water where steady swimming is resumed.

Migration terminates close to the site of spawning and the process involves localisation to a home range including both defended spawning territory and pool hiding place. During migration, social behaviour of spawning was only seen when salmon were delayed in control devices.

The migratory habits of the Dolly Varden char were investigated at Eva Creek, a typical lake-stream system on Baranof Island, Southeastern Alaska, from May 1 to November 12, 1962, and from March 16, 1963 to March 15, 1964. A weir was built across Eva Creek, and all Dolly Varden migrating to sea from Eva Lake were enumerated and marked by fin clipping and/or tagging. After leaving Eva Creek, the Dolly Varden migrated in all possible directions. Marked fish were recovered in 25 stream systems, some as far as 72 miles from Eva Creek. After an average of 116 days, 40 to 44 percent of the marked fish returened to Eva Lake for the winter. In addition, larger numbers of Doll Varden which had not spent the winter in the lake entered it the following fall.

A weir was built across Saook Creek, a nonlake system, located 10 miles west of Eva Creek on Baranof Island. Thirty-seven percent of the fish entering this system were marked fish from Eva Creek, and 68 percent of these fish had entered Eva Lake for the winter.

Major differences in the migratory habits of Dolly Varden entering the nonlake and lake-stream systems were found. It was believed that the lake-stream systmes were being used as wintering areas by Dolly Varden originating many nonlake streams throughout this area.

A list is given of 175 species of Polychaeta collected at the northern extremity of the west coast of North America; seven of the species are new to the entire coast, 29 to the northern extremity, and four new to science.

Notes are given on distribution and taxonomic characters of many of the known forms and the new species are described.

The tidal flat sediments of Port Valdez, Alaska display significant variations in lithological, chemical, and biological subfacies. These variations are attributed to lateral changes in tidal energies and distances from rock outcrops. The tidal flat deposits are poorly sorted, vary from gravels to plastic clays with various admixtures of sand and silt, have low intercalated organic matter, and are constituted chiefly of physically weathered glacial flour.

Simulated crude oil spills resulted in no changes in the sediment load, nickel, vanadium and organic carbon content. Only under chronic oil dosages did copper and zinc concentrations increase. The general lack of chemical change in oiled sediments is attributed to (1) inability of glacial sediments to immobilize crude oil and its degradable products, and (2) the swift tidal removal of the oil from tidal flat surfaces.

Sediment samples from three intertidal sites in Port Valdez were processed and nunbers of filamentous fungi, bacteria and yeasts occurring at various depths in the sediment profile tabulated. Numbers of fungi were low and there was a general decrease in numbers with increased depth. Bacterial numbers varied from site to site but also exhibited a decrease in numbers with depth. Bacterial forms were largely gram negative rods. Fungi were found to be common terrestrial forms of types often isolated from Alaskan soils.

Monthly meiofaunal counts were made at a mid-tide station on three beaches in Port Valdez over a two-year period from 1972 through 1974. Additional beaches within Port Valdez and in Galena Bay were sampled when time and logistics permitted. The meiofauna consisted primarily of nematdes and harpacticoid copepods with representatives of the Protozoa, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nemertinea, Annelida, Tardigrada, and Arthropoda (ostracods, cumaceans and arachnids) present. Several small macrofaunal species were also sampled with representatives of Annelida, Mollusca, and Arthropoda found. Most of the meiofaunal species were restricted to the upper three centimeters of sediment. No seasonal differences in vertical distribution were noted.

Distinct seasonal patterns of abundance of meiofauna were observed with densities tending to be highest in the summer and lowest in the winter. High winter meiofaunal densities were recorded in the winter of 1972 through 1973. Total meiofauna population values reached a maximum of 4682 individuals per 10 cm2 in August 1973. Limited information is presented on the reproductive biology of several harpacticoid copepods with only one species, Halectinosorna gothiceps, apparently reproducing throughout the year.

A macrofaunal clam species, Macoma balthica, was most abundant in July and early August with many recently settled young present.

The biology of the harpacticoid copepod Harpacticus uniremis Kroyer was studied for three years on an intertidal beach in Port Valdez, Alaska. The species shows a relatively distinct reproductive period with a single brood of eggs produced approximately 9 to 10 months after insemination. The harsh environmental conditions typical of sediment beaches in Port Valdez and the resultant selective pressures acting on H. uniremis there have resulted in high fecundity. Males do not live longer than six months while the longevity of females is at least ten months.

The properties of the silt sediment ecosystem at Port Valdez have important biological consequences that affect the ability of bacterial population to degrade additional organic material. The bacterial populations were unaffected by single applications of up to 2000 ppm of oil, or by chronic applications applied for several consecutive days during several low tide sries; However, when the sediment was enriched in situ by algal growth and oil seepage and in in vitro model systems, the bacteria responded with an increase in biomass, an increase in respiratory activity, and the formation of a sulfide system in sediment columns. Except for heterotrophic H2S-producing bacteria, the sulfur cycle bacteria were present in very low numbers. It is concluded that oil and other organic matter are removed by tidal action, leaving an organically poor and relatively biologically inactive ecosystem.

Three species of copepods (Harpacticus uniremis, Heterolaophonte sp., Halectinosorna gothiceps) exposed to various levels of oil (200, 500, 1000, and 2000 ppm) in the field significantly increased in density within a variable number of oiled plots. Two of the species, H. gothiceps and Heterolaophonte sp., also demonstrated an increase in reproductive activity in some of the oiled plots. The statistically significant increase in numbers of individuals in conjunction with the increase in reproductive activity for these species suggest that density increments are primarily a reflection of heightened reproductive activity. On the other hand, the slight increase in numbers of H. uniremis in some of the oiled plots could be the result of an attraction of the copepod to oil since this species was not reproducing during the experimental period. The responses of the copepods to oil in Port Valdez are in contrast to observations made in the laboratory elsewhere in which crude oil fractions were found to be toxic to various species of pelagic copepods. Further experimental work is recommended to fully comprehend the results of our experiments.

The uptake and release of added Prudhoe Bay crude oil by intertidal sediments and by Macoma balthica, a resident of those sediments, has been studied at Port Valdez, Alaska. Under the experimental conditions used, petroleum was no longer detectable two months after a five day oiling procedure designed to simulate the stranding of a light oil slick. During the experimental period a significant increase in mortality was noted for M. balthica exposed to oil as compared to the clams in the unoiled control plots.

The tidal flat sediments of Fort Valdez display significant lateral variations in lithological, chemical and biological subfacies. The glacially derived deposits are organically low poorly sorted gravels to clays with admixtures of sand and silt. Summer bacterial counts are relatively low with 243 aerobic colony forming units (CFU) and 30 anaerobic CFU per gram times 10 of sediment. Meiofaunal species are restricted to the upper 3-cm oxygenated sediment layers, and consist primarily of nematodes and harpacticoid copepods.

Simulated crude oil spills in an oxic muddy site resulted in no changes in sediment organic carbon and in the dissolved oxygen contents. Bacterial populations were also not significantly affected by application of up to 2000 ppm of crude oil for several days at a series of low tides. The general lack of organic carbon and bacterial change in oiled sediments may be attributed to the rapid removal of oil from tidal flat surfaces. Harpacticoid copepods were not adversely affected by crude oil; on the other hand, a significant increase in density of one species (Halectinosoma gothiceps) was noted at chronic oil dosages. Nonetheless a significant decrease in the concentrations of Cu, Zn, Ni and V has been observed in the tidal deposits, subsequent to the oiling of the sediments. It is concluded that crude oil stranded on tidal flat surfaces even for a relatively short moment during tidal cycles probably alters the sediment pH and Eh relationships significantly to mobilize the heavy metals from the adsorbed/exchangeable sites of sediment particles to the overlying tidal waters.

This report reviews and summarizes all oil-effects research by the Auke Bay Laboratory from the beginning of these studies in 1970 through 1981. Both published and unpublished results from 62 studies are included, regardless of funding source. Research is reviewed according to subject (e.g., toxicity, sublethal effects, studies at Port Valdez). A bibliography and abstracts are also included.

Studies With Crude Oil, No. 2 Fuel Oil, and Their Components

Results from different studies should be compared with caution because the comparisons can be misleading if exposure methods, chemical analyses, test animals, or life stages are different. Temperature also influences results of studies by affecting evaporation and biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons.

Some generalizations, however, can be made from the results of our studies. The water-soluble fraction (WSF) of No. 2 fuel oil is consistently more toxic than the WSF of crude oil even though the WSF's of fuel oil contain low concentrations of monoaromatic hydrocarbons. The total toxicity of individual aromatic hydrocarbons in the WSF's did not, however, account for all of the toxicity of the oils; thus, the aromatic hydrocarbons could be, in some cases, interacting synergistically.

Many biological and environmental variables affect sensitivity of Alaskan species to the WSF's of oils. For example, pelagic fish and invertebrates are more sensitive than intertidal species. There can be extreme differences in sensitivity between the life stages of one species. For example, eggs often seem as tolerant as adults to short-term exposures, but abnormalities can appear after the eggs hatch. Salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) alevins become much more sensitive to oil as they develop and lose their yolk. Crustacean larvae are usually sensitive to WSF'S and are affected within minutes of exposure. In fact, the lowest LC50 (concentration that killed 50% of the test animals) we have measured was 0.2 ppm aromatic hydrocarbons for Stage VI coonstripe shrimp (Pandalus hypsinotus) larvae exposed to Cook Inlet WSF The effect of temperature on toxicity of hydrocarbons varies for each species and for the hydrocarbons tested. Low temperatures, however, increase the persistence of hydrocarbons in water. Salinity consistently increases the toxicity of hydrocarbons to salmonids, and juvenile salmonids are about twice as sensitive in seawater as in freshwater.

The rate and quantities of hydrocarbons found in test organisms vary considerably and depend on the compounds tested, the life stages and species of animal tested, and the tissues analyzed. Naphthalene and methylated naphthalene, for example, reach higher concentrations in the test animals than other aromatic hydrocarbons. Concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons in crustacean larvae usually equilibrate within minutes to concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons in the test water, whereas salmon eggs required several days. Fish accumulate aromatic hydrocarbons rapidly, whereas blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) accumulate them more slowly.

Metabolism can be an important mechanism for ridding tissues of hydrocarbons. Of the animals tested, fish had the greatest ability to metabolize hydrocarbons. For invertebrates, however, metabolism does not appear to be important. Fish and invertebrates usually eliminate low molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons and their metabolites via the gills.

Oil and its components have a variety of sublethal effects that can affect population size. Feeding rates of fish and invertebrates are frequently reduced during long-term exposures to crude oil at concentrations that are 15-30% of the short-term LC50; thus, growth and energy available for growth (scope-for-growth or energy budget) are decreased.

Sensitivity of an organism in a laboratory study is different from vulnerability after an oil spill. Laboratory tests isolate one variable at a time, whereas oil spills have many variables operating at the same time, and each spill is unique. Planktonic larvae are among the most vulnerable organisms after an oil spill because they are sensitive to oil are affected after only minutes of exposure, and cannot avoid spilled oil. In fact, some larvae are killed within minutes by concentrations of crude oil that are <1 ppm. Other animals, like fish, may be nearly as sensitive as planktonic larvae but can probably avoid an oil-contaminated area. Although intertidal animals are not sensitive to oil spills and may require long-term exposures to about 20-25% of their LC50 before growth is affected, many are sessile and must rely solely on physiological tolerance to endure exposure to oil.

Studies at Port Valdez

Effluent from the ballast-water treatment plant at Port Valdez is rapidly diluted, and in the short term, is apparently not toxic. However, concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons in the effluent were as high as 15 ppm, and dilutions of the effluent as low as 2% (vol/vol) were toxic to some crustacean larvae. Shrimp and fish were less sensitive to the effluent (LC5O of 19-43% dilutions) than larvae. Repeated tests with shrimp and fish suggest that the toxicity of the effluent may be caused by contaminants other than aromatic hydrocarbons.

A decrease in the population of Baltic clams (Macoma balthica) and the presence of hydrocarbons in sediments near the effluent-treatment facility suggest that a continuous discharge of effluent could cause long-term damage.

Drilling Muds

Because drilling muds are rapidly diluted and have low toxicity, they are probably not toxic to planktonic larvae. Unlike the WSF's of oil, crustacean larvae exposed to drilling muds do not immediately cease swimming or die, and most of the toxicity is apparently caused by physical stress of the particulates in suspension rather than chemical stress. The alkalinity of one mud was quite high, however, and its alkalinity was the primary cause of toxicity.

Research on the biology of the anadromous red salmon of Bristol Bay, Alaska, was financed by the canning industry. The features of its life his tory which shaped the program and its evolution are described.

Numerous small, independent, spawning populations exist in the lakes and streams. During seaward migration, the young form successively more complex mixtures and then segregate progressively as they return to spawn in their home streams, where interbreeding occurs within each local stock. When thus segregated the summed mortality of the life of the generation is most evident in the variability of these units. Each mixture during the home- ward migration of the adults must then have an abundance which is based upon the varying productivity of its components, hence in any given generation it must be much more stable in numbers than the individual components. Values of the reproductive ratios of the latter entering into that of the mixture are weighted by their respective abundance. That of the return ratio of more than half of the components, as they vary, must fall below the weighted average used. This average should rise as the weaker stocks diminish in importance. As a result, calculations of the needed escapements or numbers allowed to spawn indicate an apparent optimum ratio which is too low and may become progressively lower. Since even the most productive units vary widely in their numbers from time to time they are not necessarily free from the effects of the overfishing permitted upon the basis of their productivity and unless they are always underfished they will continue to suffer. Minima in abundance, as crises in productivity, should be expected to occur more frequently, and to be of most frequent occurrence and most evident in the small units ultimately segregaed. Therefore care of the species must be primarily concerned with the type and severity of the damage done to these units and their genotypes by overfishing during the period of crisis, but this damage has not been studied and research must be centered upon it. Factors controlling damage to them during crisis are discussed and indicated as probably evident in (1) a progressive reduction of less viable component units, including genotypes, (2) greater survival rates resultant from safety factors built into the structure of the species and effective during scarcity, and (3) effects upon the biological environment. Some of these factors are described and it is concluded that they are, in general, different in kind from those controlling the upper limits of abundance. The assumption that they are the same, or that noatural factors are constant in either, made to facilitate mathematiacal calculations of the optimum catches and escapements, must be in error. Regulation should not be based solely upon the statistical treatment of the values of the means obtained from the fished mixtures in the estuaries of in the sea. The resultant program of research adopted is described and the need for improvements in methods and techniques for freshwater studies is emphasized.

Florida sediment chemical measurements indicate that contaminants are present in elevated levels in a number of coastal areas. However, this information alone is not sufficient to indicate potential biological harm associated with chemical levels. A cost-effective approach for screening chemical levels is needed to estimate potential biological effects. This report was prepared to provide the Florida Department of Environmental Protection with guidance on the development of effects-based sediment quality assessment guidelines (SQAGs) for Florida coastal waters. A variety of approaches for deriving numerical SQAGs were reviewed and evaluated in light of Florida's unique requirements for SQAGs. The results of this evaluation indicated that an approach recommended by Long and Morgan (1990; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) would provide a practical near-term basis for deriving SQAGs. Using this approach, preliminary SQAGs are intended to assist sediment quality assessment applications, such as identifying priority areas for non-point source management actions, designing wetland restoration projects, and monitoring trends in environmental contamination. They are not intended to be used as sediment quality criteria. A preliminary evaluation of the SQAGs is included in the report to provide practitioners with further guidance on using these management tools. While this evaluation indicates that the preliminary guidelines are broadly applicable in the southeast care should be exercised in applying the SQAGs elsewhere in North America. The report also includes recommendations on improving sediment quality assessments. These revised SQAGs replace guidelines initially recommended to the Florida Department of Environmental Protection.

In Florida, conservation and protection of natural resources has been identified as a high priority environmental management goal. Realization of this goal requires protection of living resources and their habitats in estuarine, nearshore, and marine ecosystems. In the last decade, there has been a significant increase in the level of scientific understanding (and public recognition) of the important role sediments play in the functioning of coastal ecosystems. In addition to providing important habitats for aquatic organisms, sediments play a critical role in determining the fate and effects of environmental contaminants. Hence, sediment quality issues and concerns are becoming more important in the management of natural resources.

Recent monitoring data indicate that concentrations of various contaminants are present at elevated levels at a number of locations in Florida coastal sediments. While these chemical data provide essential information on the nature and areal extent of contamination, they provide neither a direct measure of adverse biological effects nor an indication of the potential for such effects. Therefore, effects-based SQAGs have been developed to evaluate the potential for biological effects associated with sediment-sorbed contaminants and to provide assistance in managing coastal resources. The primary uses of these SQAGs have been identified in this document. In addition, a framework for using the SQAGs in conjunction with other assessment tools has been presented.

The metals interpretive tool (Schropp and Windom 1988) and the preliminary SQAGs were used to conduct an initial assessment to determine the nature, extent, and severity of contamination in Florida coastal sediments. The degree of anthropogenic enrichment and the potential for adverse biological effects associated with measured levels of sediment-sorbed contaminants were used as indices of contamination. Data contained in the Florida Department of Environmental Protection coastal sediment chemistry database were used to identify priority areas and priority substances with respect to sediment contamination. The results of this evaluation are considered to be preliminary due to various limitations, including the dearth of data from certain areas, the lack of information on many organic chemicals, and the age of some chemical data (i.e., they may not reflect present conditions). This type of assessment should be repeated when the limitations have been addressed.

The initial assessment screened information from 21 coastal areas. The vicinity of Miami, Jacksonville, Tampa Bay, Pensacola, and Panama City were identified as the highest priority areas in terms of the extent and severity of sediment contamination. As surveys have recently been completed in Tampa Hay and Pensacola Bay, the highest priority areas for new studies are Biscayne Bay and the St. Johns River. The contaminants of greatest concern in Florida sediment included lead, mercury, benzo(a)pyrene, pyrene, acenaphthene, benz(a)anthracene, chrysene, fluoranthene, and phenanthrene.

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